Commonwealth Coat of Arms of Australia

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species) Instrument 2023

We jointly make this recovery plan under subsection 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

 

Dated  4 October 2023

 

 

Tanya Plibersek

Minister for the Environment and Water (Commonwealth)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dated  7 March 2023

 

 

Meaghan Scanlon

Minister for the Environment and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)

Minister for Science and Youth Affairs

 

 

 

 

2.1A  Name

  This instrument is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species) Instrument 2023.

2.1B  Commencement

  This instrument commences the day after it is registered.

2.1C  Authority

  This instrument is made under subsection 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

 

National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

 


© Commonwealth of Australia 2023

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All material in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence except content supplied by third parties, logos and the Commonwealth Coat of Arms.

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Cataloguing data

This publication (and any material sourced from it) should be attributed as: DCCEEW 2023, National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Canberra. CC BY 4.0

This plan was prepared for the Commonwealth of Australia by Powell, M., Gould, L., Costello, G., Gregory, M. & Donatiu P with support from the Australian Macadamia Society.

Original Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan prepared by Glenn Costello, Michael Gregory and Paul Donatiu for Horticulture Australia Limited and the Australian Macadamia Society.

This publication is available at dcceew.gov.au/publications.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

GPO Box 3090 Canberra ACT 2601

Telephone 1800 900 090

Web dcceew.gov.au

Disclaimer

The Australian Government acting through the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water has exercised due care and skill in preparing and compiling the information and data in this publication. Notwithstanding, the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, its employees and advisers disclaim all liability, including liability for negligence and for any loss, damage, injury, expense or cost incurred by any person as a result of accessing, using or relying on any of the information or data in this publication to the maximum extent permitted by law.

Acknowledgement of Country

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water recognises the First Peoples of this nation and their ongoing connection to culture and country. We acknowledge First Nations Peoples as the Traditional Owners, Custodians and Lore Keepers of the world's oldest living culture and pay respects to their Elders past and present.

Image Credits

Front cover: Glenn Costello, Paul Donatiu and Ian McConachie

Contents

Executive summary

Species description and taxonomy

Current species status

Habitat and distribution summary

Threats summary

Recovery objective

Summary of actions

1 General information

Conservation status

International obligations

Affected interests

Consultation with First Nations people

Benefits to other species or communities

Recovery Plans relevant to the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Social and economic impacts

2 Biological information

Introduction

Macadamia integrifolia (Queensland nut tree)

Macadamia jansenii (Bulburin nut tree)

Macadamia ternifolia (Gympie nut)

Macadamia tetraphylla (Rough-shelled bush nut)

3 Threats

Biology and ecology relevant to threats

Species specific threats

Prioritisation of threats

4 Evaluation of previous Recovery Plan

Overview

Achievements against performance criteria

5 Updated recovery objectives, performance criteria and actions

Overall objective

Overview

Performance criteria and management actions

6 Summary of recommended management practices

7 Costs of recovery

8 Evaluation of Recovery Plan

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

Bibliography

Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership

Appendix 2: Risk probability, consequence and impact analysis

Probability assessment (defining the probability of the issue occurring)

Consequence assessment (defining the consequences of the issue occurring)

Tables

Table 1. Legislative status of Australian Macadamia species.

Table 2. Distinguishing features of Macadamia species.

Table 3. Habitat critical to survival of Macadamia integrifolia.

Table 4. Priority populations of Macadamia integrifolia.

Table 5. Known populations of Macadamia integrifolia in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 6. Known populations of Macadamia jansenii in Australia.

Table 7. Known populations of Macadamia ternifolia in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 8. Known populations of Macadamia tetraphylla in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 9. Threat prioritisation.

Table 10. Summary of specific objectives and threats addressed.

Table 11. Summary of actions to mitigate threats.

Table 12. Costs associated with recovering species in the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species.

Table 13. Macadamia Conservation Committee.

Table 14. Macadamia Conservation Research Committee

Table 15. Levels of impact and their ecological consequences.

Figures

Figure 1. Natural distribution of Macadamia and natural hybrids.

Figure 2. Risk evaluation matrix – potential impacts

This Recovery Plan replaces the former Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan. It contains considerable new information gathered during the implementation of the former plan and utilises this to determine new actions and priorities for Macadamia conservation.

The review of the former Recovery Plan was an initiative of the Macadamia Conservation Committee (MCC) and was undertaken by members of that committee, with funding support from the Australian Macadamia Society and Horticulture Australia Ltd.

Recent taxonomic reclassification of the Macadamia genus (Mast et al., 2008) has resulted in the five species of the former northern clade being placed in a newly created genus: Lasjia and the four remaining Macadamia species comprising the former southern clade being retained in the genus Macadamia. The four species of Macadamia are genetically similar, and all are mid stratum or sub canopy trees with simple leaves arranged either in whorls of three or four, axillary flowers in brush-like hanging racemes and bear rounded fruits with a hard brown inner shell protecting the nut.

The four species of Macadamia are currently listed as either endangered or vulnerable under relevant Commonwealth and State legislation across their respective ranges. In addition, all four species are listed in the Red List for Threatened Plants (IUCN 1997).

All four species are endemic to subtropical rainforest or to a lesser extent, wet sclerophyll communities containing a rainforest understory found within the north east New South Wales (NSW) and south east Queensland coastal regions. Except for M. jansenii (which is recorded from a single location approximately 150 km north of its closest congener population), they have overlapping ranges.

Clearing to accommodate human population growth and development, habitat fragmentation, small population size, presence of weed species and altered fire regimes are the major threatening processes affecting Macadamia species. Climate change in the form of variable rainfall and higher temperatures, the potential for genetic pollution from commercial plantations and a lack of public awareness of the conservation status of wild Macadamias are also considered significant potential threats.

The overall objective of this plan is to ensure the long-term viability of all four Macadamia species through maintaining existing populations and implementing measures to promote recovery.

Key actions required for the recovery of Macadamia species include:

Additional actions include assessment of the distribution of genetic diversity among Macadamia populations, conducting further research into the extent of pollen flow between Macadamia cultivars and wild populations, setting up long term monitoring of strategic populations to assess impacts of climate change and resurveying selected populations that have long term population data to assess the impacts of fragmentation on population structure. The recovery team commenced actions under this plan in 2014.

The Macadamia genus is endemic to Australia and is the predominant Australian native commercial food crop. Two of the four Macadamia species produce a highly desired, edible nut and are extensively cultivated within and outside their natural distribution in Australia and internationally. Despite this, all four species are threatened in the wild.

Wild populations of Macadamia are genetic reservoirs for the Macadamia industry, which was founded from only a very small number of trees exported to Hawai’i in the late 1800s. Wild trees contain a genetic diversity that does not exist within cultivated trees and are a resource vital to building industry resilience to changes in weather patterns, emerging pests and possible diseases.

Preceding contemporary utilisation, Macadamias were harvested and eaten by First Nations communities along the east coast, as well as traded with other communities and, following colonisation, with settlers.

Macadamia nuts are also sought after by cockatoos and native as well as introduced rat species, though few other animals can crack the hard shell found on the edible species.

This Plan encompasses the four Macadamia species, all of which are listed as threatened under relevant State threatened species legislation where they occur and under Commonwealth legislation (Table 1).

Table 1. Legislative status of Australian Macadamia species

Scientific Name

Macadamia species

Queensland1

NSW2

Australia3

Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche

Vulnerable

N/A

Vulnerable

Macadamia jansenii C.L. Gross & P.H. Weston

Endangered

N/A

Endangered

Macadamia ternifolia F. Muell

Vulnerable

N/A

Vulnerable

Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson

Vulnerable

Vulnerable

Vulnerable

1 Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Qld); 2 Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW); 3 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

All four Macadamia species are listed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List for Threatened Plants (IUCN 1997), with M. jansenii listed as endangered and the other three species as vulnerable.

Australia is a signatory to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (FAO 2009), adopted by consensus and as a binding international agreement at the Thirty-first Session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations on 3 November 2001. Under the terms of this agreement, Australia is required to conserve the genetic resources of Macadamia species for food and agricultural purposes.

Macadamia integrifolia, M. integrifolia x tetraphylla and M. tetraphylla are included on the List of Exempt Native Species (LENS) for oil, fruit, husks and shells. Native species export permits may be required if these species are to be exported in any form or from any other species than those included on LENS.

Macadamias have a restricted distribution within appropriate habitats which occur on public and private land across a range of tenures.

Organisations and individuals that may be affected by the actions in this Recovery Plan include:

          NSW Department of Family and Community Services and Justice (DFCSJ)

          NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment (DPIE)

          NSW Local Land Services (LLS) North Coast, Northern Tablelands and North West regions

          Queensland Department Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships (DATSIP)

          Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF)

          Queensland Department of Environment and Science (DES)

          Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy (DNRME)

          Queensland Department of Fire and Emergency Services (DFES)

          Australian Macadamia Society

          Growcom

          Horticulture Innovation Australia

          HQPlantations

          Brisbane Rainforest Action and Information Network

          Landcare groups, for example, Big Scrub Landcare, Gympie Landcare, Noosa and District Landcare, Tamborine Mountain Landcare

          Catchment associations, for example, Mary River Catchment Coordinating Committee, Gold Coast Catchment Association, Pine Rivers Catchment Association, Brisbane Catchments Network

          Field naturalists’ groups

          Australian Native Plants Society (Australia) (ANPSA) and affiliated regional societies including Native Plants Queensland and Australian Plants Society NSW

          Greening Australia

          Environment groups, for example, Sunshine Coast Environment Council, GECKO, Queensland Conservation Council

          Burnett-Mary Regional Group

          Healthy Land and Water (South East Queensland)

          CSIRO

          Griffith University

          Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI)

          University of the Sunshine Coast

          University of Queensland

          Southern Cross University

During the development of the initial Plan, several Aboriginal groups with connection to Country providing Macadamia habitat were contacted. These included the Gubbi Gubbi and Yuggera groups, and the South East Queensland Traditional Owner Land and Sea Management Alliance (SEQTOLSMA). Macadamia nuts have been recorded as a valuable food, trading and cultural resource to Aboriginal people (SEQTOLSMA members pers. comm.). All these groups reiterated the importance of conserving threatened Macadamia species. Aboriginal people have been and will continue to be encouraged to be involved in the recovery process through the implementation of recovery actions. For example, in the Bundaberg region, the Recovery Team is actively working with the Gurang and Gooreng Gooreng peoples through the Gidarjil Corporation to establish and maintain four ex-situ populations of the endangered M. jansenii.

Specific localities for some Macadamia populations provide valuable habitat for a diverse range of other flora and fauna, including other State or Commonwealth listed threatened species and ecological communities. A significant proportion of Macadamia populations occur in the critically endangered Lowland Rainforest of Subtropical Australia ecological community (EPBC, 1999), others in regional ecosystems considered ‘Endangered’ or ‘Of concern’ under the Vegetation Management Act 1999 (Qld) (VMA 1999) and others in endangered ecological communities listed in the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW) (BCA 2016). The successful protection of Macadamia populations and implementation of recovery actions at these sites will provide benefits to non-target taxa and threatened communities.

The following approved Recovery Plans are relevant to this Plan:

Populations of Macadamias found on private lands are generally located in areas where in-situ protection – for example, protective fencing and weed control – will have little or no negative economic impact on the viability of farm enterprises. In contrast, lack of protection of wild Macadamia populations may have significant economic impacts on the long-term viability of the Macadamia nut industry globally through a reduction in genetic diversity available for long term cultivar development including traits of resistance to disease and pathogens.

Horticulture Innovation Australia has recently produced a Strategic Investment Plan 2017–2021 (HIA 2017) for the Australian Macadamia industry. This plan identifies that wild Macadamia germplasm is a source of gene stock for commercial varieties and refers to providing allowance within the breeding program for conservation of wild Macadamia and supporting the work of the Macadamia Conservation Trust.

Macadamia belongs to the Proteaceae, an ancient angiosperm family whose initial differentiation from ancestral forms occurred in the south-east of Australia 90–100 million years ago. The family is well known for other genera such as Banksia, Grevillea and Hakea. Proteaceae appear to have been a major component of the early angiosperm dominated rainforests which once covered most of Australia. Macadamia were probably widely distributed within these early forests as evidenced by Macadamia type fossil pollen recorded in sediments in south-east Australia, central coastal Queensland and New Zealand.

The commencement of significant and permanent change in climate beginning about 40 million years ago resulted in a long-term trend of contraction of rainforest towards coastal areas, which accelerated through the Quaternary period. This process contributed to adaptation to drier fire prone habitats by much of the Proteaceae family, with a relict rainforest component including Macadamia, becoming progressively more restricted and disjunct in distribution over time and space.

Macadamia are endemic to the north east NSW and south east Queensland coastal regions. They are mid stratum or sub canopy trees whose prime habitat is subtropical rainforests, although they are also found in sclerophyll forests where rainforest is subdominant (often its presence is fire mediated).

Macadamia flowers are racemes of cream or pink flowers, which are followed by hard, woody fruits that enclose a hard-shelled nut containing a cream kernel. In two of the four Macadamia species, this kernel is edible, and cultivars of these species are the grown extensively within Australia and overseas. Macadamia flowering appears to be light-limited; trees growing within rainforest environments produce far less flowers than backyard or orchard trees, though, trees on rainforest edges or in forest gaps may produce abundant flowers.

The four species of Macadamias are all genetically closely related and three – M. integrifolia, M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla – have overlapping ranges (refer Figure 1); M. jansenii is the exception and is known only from a single location 150 km north of the closest Macadamia population. The natural distribution of M. integrifolia, M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla are predominantly restricted to a narrow east-west zone encompassing the coastal ranges and foothills west of the Pacific Ocean. Table 2 summarises the characteristic features that help to distinguish Macadamia species from each other.

Table 2. Distinguishing features of Macadamia species

Species

Feature

Leaves

Flower colour

Nuts

Macadamia integrifolia

3 leaves per node; smooth edges to older leaves; green new flush

Cream

Thick, hard, smooth shell; edible kernel

Macadamia jansenii

3 leaves per node; smooth edges to leaves; green or pink new flush

Cream

Small with thin, smooth shell; bitter kernel

Macadamia ternifolia

3 leaves per node; spiny leaves; pink new flush

Pink

Small with thin, smooth shell; bitter kernel

Macadamia tetraphylla

4 leaves per node; spiny leaves, pink new flush

Pink

Thick, hard, rough shell; edible kernel

 

Most knowledge of Macadamia has been gained through research to support the commercial industry, which has focused on M. integrifolia, and M. tetraphylla; further research is required to determine whether this knowledge can validly be applied to the other two species. In recent times, the industry has expanded its research to investigate the potential value of wild trees of these species and to explore characteristics of M. ternifolia and M. jansenii that may be of value to the industry.

Macadamia integrifolia is highly susceptible to fire damage (O’Hare et al. 2004). A known response by orchard trees in response to fires hot enough to destroy the cambium layer, is to shoot from roots below or near the ground (Rosedale 1969); this results in multi-stemmed trees. Multi-stemmed plants are common in wild populations of all four species, so it is assumed that all species are similarly susceptible to fire.

Pollen flow between Macadamia trees growing in highly fragmented landscapes has been reported at distances of up to 3 km (Neal 2007); it is likely that in more intact forest habitats, pollen exchange occurs across much shorter distances. Flower production is also reduced in shaded environments, such as under the rainforest canopy. Whilst self-pollination can occur in Macadamia, cross-pollination results in greater nut production.

Trees that display morphological characteristics of both M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are found in a hybrid zone up to 20 km wide (Peace 2005). While similar observations have not been reported for M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia, DNA marker studies have confirmed hybrid genotypes (Peace 2005). Hybridisation may be an important survival mechanism, providing a means of adaptation to changed environmental conditions, and evidence of the evolutionary retention of genes better adapted to the same. Hybrid populations offer important foci for ecological research, potentially improve long-term species viability where overlap occurs, and may be important conservation priorities.

Seed dispersal is by small rodents, cockatoos and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. The role of seed predators such as cockatoos and rodents in effecting seed dispersal is likely to be limited. Studies of the caches of the introduced black rat (Rattus rattus) – a common predator of trees in orchards, backyards and wild populations close to urban areas – found they did not contain any undamaged nuts; thus, germination of the dispersed seed is unlikely (Elmouttie and Wilson 2005).

Macadamias have had a long association with humans; nut shells have been found in Aboriginal Middens near Brisbane and they are thought to have been a valuable trade item between Aboriginal communities along the east coast of Australia and subsequently with early settlers. Macadamia trees growing on the edges of the rainforest, thus receiving more light and producing more nuts, are likely to have been regularly cropped. It was mainly the women who searched for, collected and prepared the nuts. They cracked the nuts between rocks and either ate them immediately or roasted the nut in the ash of their fires and carried them as a non-perishable food source (McConachie 2012).

Non-indigenous knowledge of Macadamia initiated with collection of specimens of the inedible M. ternifolia by the explorer Ludwig Leichardt in 1843, from about 60 km north of Brisbane. It wasn’t until around 1860 that settlers realised the fine eating qualities of both M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla, subsequently planting them widely in farmyards and backyards as single trees, grown from seeds of local wild stock.

Early realisation of the commercial potential of Macadamia in Australia was inhibited by insect pests (which caused many flowers, nutlets and nuts to be lost), rats and other seed predators, and lack of horticultural knowledge (McConachie 2012). Despite this, the Macadamia nut industry was founded around 1880 at Rous Hill near Lismore using seed from local wild M. tetraphylla, with similar plantings recorded near Maleny in south east Queensland in the early 20th century. It was not until a small handful of Macadamia were sent to Hawai’i in the late 1870s that their full potential was able to be exploited and the industry significantly expanded. Australian Macadamias are the source genetic material for a growing global industry.

From a conservation perspective, the potential translocation of wild trees by First Nations peoples, combined with the transport and planting of nuts both within and outside of the natural distribution of Macadamias that has occurred in Australia since European arrival, can make it difficult to distinguish planted trees from in-situ wild stock. This is particularly the case in areas where native vegetation has been cleared for settlement or agriculture, and regrowth has occurred. This situation confounds identification of Macadamia distribution, natural habitat, and has implications for distribution of genetic resources.

Figure 1. Natural distribution of Macadamia and natural hybrids

This figure shows a map of the natural distribution of Macadamia and natural hybrids in northern New South Wales and Queensland.

Note: Areas of vegetation are those remnants in 2005 in NSW (NSW Department of Environment and Heritage) and 2006 in Queensland (Queensland Herbarium). Dotted lines show the extent of hybrid zones. Star represents the approximate location of M. jansenii (adapted from Hardner et al. 2009).

Macadamia integrifolia is a long-lived perennial mid-storey to sub canopy evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 25 m tall, with greyish branchlets dotted with raised lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). Individuals are often multi-stemmed with small crowns. The simple obovate to narrowly oblong leaves are arranged in whorls of three or opposite, and 5.5–14 cm long by 2.5–6 cm wide (Stanley and Ross 2002). Blade tips are rounded and finish in a short sharp point; the base tapers to petioles 5–10 mm long. Axillary creamy-white flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 10–30 cm long. Rounded fruits are green, 2.5–3.5 cm wide with a hard, smooth, brown inner shell protecting the edible nut. Flowering period is August to October with kernel maturation from December to March, with mature nuts falling to the ground thereafter.

Macadamia integrifolia is a long-lived species which matures at around ten years and has a juvenile period of more than six years (Queensland CRA/RFA Steering Committee 1997, cited in DoE 2019a). Trees (propagated from wild seed) over 100 years old are known; for example, the Walter Hill Tree, planted in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, is at least 160 years old, and the Jordan Tree on the Gold Coast is thought to be over 140 years old (National Trust, 2013).

Knowledge of M. integrifolia response to fire has been gained through research to benefit the Macadamia industry. This has found that the species is highly susceptible to fire damage (O'Hare et al. 2004). A hot fire will burn the trunk, destroy the conductive tissue and cause gumming on Macadamia trees but if the cambium layer between the bark and the wood is killed, the tree may send up shoots from below the ground level and become multi-stemmed (Rosedale 1969). Neal (2007) considered multi-stemming in wild trees a response to stress or damage.

Both introduced European honey (Apis mellifera) and native bees (Tetragonula spp.) appear to be the main pollinators, with native bees being superior pollinators. Trees in orchards are rarely observed to produce seed from self-pollination (Neal 2007).

Seed dispersal is by small rodents, cockatoos and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. The role of seed predators such as cockatoos and rodents in effecting seed dispersal is likely to be limited. Studies of the caches of the introduced black rat – a common predator of trees in orchards, backyards and wild populations close to urban areas – found they did not contain any undamaged nuts; thus, germination of the dispersed seed is unlikely (Elmouttie and Wilson 2005).

Hybridisation has been documented between M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia, and between M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla in areas of range overlap where both species co-occur within the same rainforest patch.

Genetic studies have been carried out on wild M. integrifolia DNA using RAFs (Radioactive Amplified DNA Fingerprinting) microsatellites and isozymes techniques. Both molecular marker evidence and evidence from variation for horticultural traits indicates there is moderate to high genetic diversity within the species and among populations (Neal 2007; Hardner et al. 2009).

The latest paper on the phylogenetic structure of M. integrifolia confirms a deep divergence between northern and southern clades of the species, suggesting a historical barrier to seed dispersal north of Brisbane, between the Brisbane and Mary catchments (Nock et al. 2019). This is consistent with two subtropical refugia as defined by Weber et al. (2014). Each of the northern and southern clades forms two distinct sub-clades – Mt Bauple and Gympie for the northern clade and for the southern clade, a division by the Brisbane River valley into sites to the north-west of Brisbane and sites south of Brisbane to the Gold Coast (Nock et al. 2019). A fifth sub-clade was identified by Nock et al. (2019) which was only represented by three old trees transplanted from the wild. It is hoped that further surveying and DNA testing will find other trees from this sub-clade and reveal their geographic origin, but it may be that they are from a population that is now extinct in the wild (Nock et al. 2019).

Evidence from paternity studies indicates presence of current gene flow by pollen between populations up to approximately 3 km in a highly fragmented landscape (Neal 2007). These data indicate that the species may survive small population size if there is a network of small populations within a region (meta-population) that enable the maintenance of genetic diversity. Neal et al. (2010) investigated the impact of habitat fragmentation on reproduction and growth of new trees in wild M. integrifolia populations, finding that fragmentation is not necessarily detrimental to reproduction in the short term, possibly because of increased flowering when the canopy cover is not as thick. This capacity for persistence is countered by localised seed dispersal and high predation on seeds, which make the species susceptible to fragmentation and variable population growth rates.

Macadamia integrifolia is naturally distributed along the foothills and coastal ranges of south east Queensland from the NSW border to Mt Bauple near Maryborough, a distance of approximately 300 km, and is more widespread and frequent in the northern half of its range. The observed pattern of distribution of the species is one of clusters of populations, which are thought to be due to association with refugial habitats arising from long term climate cycles together with limited capacity for dispersal during periods of favourable climate (Powell et al. 2014). The largest number of recorded populations and individuals are located in an area centred on the Amamoor Valley southwest of Gympie; this area may contain up to 90% of the total extant number of this species, potentially more than 10,000 individuals (Neal et al. 2010) of which more than half are mature individuals. The balance of population clusters collectively contains in the order of 500–1,000 individuals. The species co-occurs with M. ternifolia on the Blackall Range and Samford Valley and with M. tetraphylla in the southern part of its range.

Over the extent of its natural distribution, M. integrifolia is generally found within lowland warm complex notophyll vine forest and Araucarian notophyll vine forest, which occur on metamorphosed sediments and interbedded volcanics or alluvia in higher rainfall areas. This species occupies all topographic positions including ridges, scree slopes, foot slopes, gullies, benches and riverine terraces. Soils are predominantly alluvial or volcanic, well drained, often with significant surface exposure of rock fragments. Slope and aspect vary. Elevation range is 5–600 m.

The currently recorded extent of occupied habitat is approximately 1,500 ha and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 30,000 ha within an area of 6,800 km2. Total population size is estimated to be between 5,000–10,000 mature individuals within approximately 60 key populations with 10–300 mature specimens at each locality. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution. Within the few relatively few areas of intact habitat, it is typically scantily distributed within the vegetation matrix. In disturbed riparian zones, it tends to occur in a clumped pattern of distribution in small remnant patches of habitat that are prone to weed invasion.

Macadamia integrifolia is found in a range of vegetation communities comprising complex and simple notophyll vine forests, simple microphyll-notophyll vine forest with emergent Araucaria and Argyrodendron, and sclerophyll forests where rainforest is subdominant, and its presence is mediated by fire (Powell et al. 2010).

The Queensland Herbarium Regional Ecosystem Description Database (REDD) identifies four Regional Ecosystems (REs) 12.3.1, 12.8.3, 12.11.10 and 12.12.16 as habitat for M. integrifolia (see Table 3). Up to 66% of recorded populations of M. integrifolia occurring in remnant vegetation are located in these four RE types (Powell et al. 2010; Powell unpublished data). The majority of the other populations in remnant vegetation are found in riparian RE types or areas mapped as sclerophyll communities where rainforest is subdominant, and its presence is frequently fire mediated (Powell et al. 2014).

A substantial number of populations occur in areas not mapped as remnant vegetation; areas where stands of M. integrifolia have been preserved, but other native vegetation has been cleared.

Table 3. Habitat critical to survival of Macadamia integrifolia

Regional Ecosystem

Short Description

VMA Status1

12.3.1

Gallery rainforest (notophyll vine forest) on alluvial plains

E

12.8.3

Complex notophyll vine forest on Cainozoic igneous rocks. Altitude <600 m

LC

12.11.10

Notophyll vine forest +/- Araucaria cunninghamii on metamorphics +/- interbedded volcanics

LC

12.12.16

Notophyll vine forest on Mesozoic to Proterozoic igneous rocks

LC

1 VMA Status: status under the Vegetation Management Act 1999 (Qld); E = Endangered, OC = Of Concern; LC = Least Concern

Populations of M. integrifolia have been prioritised using criteria including population size, proximity to other populations (based on pollen transfer distance) and occurrence within remnant vegetation. To account for mapping error, any population mapped as being within 50 m of remnant vegetation is assumed to be located within remnant vegetation.

Table 4. Priority populations of Macadamia integrifolia

Priority

Criteria

VERY HIGH

Populations with at least two neighbouring populations within 3 km AND within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 26–49 or greater

OR

Populations where two Macadamia species are recorded as present

HIGH

Populations with at least two neighbours within 3 km AND within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 11–26 or greater

OR

Populations with at least two neighbours within 3 km AND Population Class 26–49 or greater

OR

Populations within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 26–49 or greater

MEDIUM

All other populations

 

The known population clusters of M. integrifolia throughout its distribution are summarised in Table 5. Information is provided on the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat (cleared, RE number or unknown), population size (Pop Size), and conservation priority (Priority: very high, high or medium).

Table 5. Known populations of Macadamia integrifolia in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID

Location

Tenure

Habitat

Pop Size

Priority

Bauple Group

7147288

Bauple

National Park

Non remnant

11–25

High

7146903

Bauple

Private property

12.12.16

11–25

Very high

7145788

Bauple

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

High

7145377

Bauple

Private property

Non remnant

Unknown

High

7145274

Bauple

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

High

7144924

Bauple

Private property

12.12.16

11–25

Very high

7144417

Bauple

Private property

12.12.16

6–10

High

7143588

Bauple

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

High

7143092

Bauple

Private property

12.12.16

1–5

High

Amamoor/Imbil Group

7096732

Mary Ck

Private property

12.3.7

1–5

High

7096334

Mary Ck

Forest lease area

12.11.10

51–100

Very high

7095930

Mary Ck

Forest lease area

12.11.10

11–25

High

7091012

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

7090288

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

7089787

Eel LA

Forest lease area

12.11.10

26–50

High

7089088

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

7088354

Eel LA

Forest lease area

12.11.10

51–100

High

7088145

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

51–100

Very high

7088056

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

1–5

High

7087676

Eel LA

Forest lease area

12.11.10

6–10

High

7087572

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

101–200

Very high

7087413

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

11–25

Very high

7086980

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

6–10

High

7086840

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

1–5

High

7086651

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.3

101–200

Very high

7086609

Amamoor

Road reserve

Hoop

11–25

Very high

7086533

Amamoor

Road reserve

Non remnant

6–10

High

7086162

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

1–5

High

7086084

Amamoor

Road reserve

12.3.1

11–25

Very high

7085956

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

51–100

Very high

7085906

Amamoor

Private property

12.3.7

26–50

Very high

7085752

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

6–10

High

7085501

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

51–100

High

7085065

Amamoor

Road reserve

Non remnant

6–10

High

7084904

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

101–200

Very high

7084899

Amamoor

Road reserve

12.3.1

6–10

High

7084832

Amamoor

Road reserve

12.3.1

26–50

Very high

7084510

Amamoor

Road reserve

Non remnant

11–25

High

7084352

Amamoor

Road reserve

Hoop

11–25

High

7084288

Amamoor

Reserve

12.11.3a

51–100

Very high

7084194

Amamoor

Forest lease area

Hoop

51–100

High

7084155

Amamoor

Reserve

Non remnant

6–10

High

7083988

Amamoor

Forest lease area

Plant

11–25

Very high

7083698

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

51–100

High

7083379

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.3.1

26–50

Very high

7083322

Amamoor

Road reserve

12.3.1

51–100

Very high

7083103

Amamoor

Forest lease area

12.11.10

11–25

Very high

7083102

Amamoor

Private property

Non remnant

101–200

High

7083016

Amamoor

Private property

12.11.10

1–5

High

7076037

Mitchell Ck

Forest lease area

12.3.1

11–25

High

7075098

Mitchell Ck

Forest lease area

12.3.1

11–25

Very high

7073740

Mitchell Ck

National Park

12.11.3

11–25

Very high

7073389

Mitchell Ck

Forest lease area

12.11.10

11–25

Very high

Blackall Range/Dulong Group

7061290

Dulong

Private property

Non remnant

51–100

High

7052081

Dulong

National Park

12.8.3

11–25

Very high

7051640

Keils Mountain

Private property

Non remnant

Unknown

Medium

7051381

Dulong

Unknown

12.12.2

6–10

Medium

7051208

Dulong

Reserve

Non remnant

11–25

Very high

Samford/Pine Rivers Group

 

 

 

 

 

7016689

Villeneuve

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

7015188

Upper Caboolture

Private property

12.9–10.4

11–25

High

7004689

Campbells Pocket

Public land

Non remnant

6–10

Very high

6994689

No details

Public land

Non remnant

6–10

Very high

6993389

No details

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6991789

Terrors Ck

Private property

12.3.1

1–5

High

6975713

Samford

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6972817

Olson's Scrub

Private property

12.12.16

51–100

Very high

6972689

Samford

Public land

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6970589

Mt Nebo

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

Very high

6970196

Samford

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

Southern Group

 

 

 

 

 

6956478

Carindale

Public land

Non remnant

1–5

High

6947895

Little Eprapah Ck

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

High

6945789

No details

Public land

12.3.1

6–10

High

6945289

Mt Cotton

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

6931076

Logan

Private property

12.11.10

11–25

Very high

6929989

Belivah Scrub

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

High

6929959

Bahrs Scrub

Reserve

12.11.10

Unknown

High

6929538

Bahrs Scrub

Reserve

12.11.10

Unknown

High

6924746

Ormeau

Unknown

12.11.10

Unknown

High

6922689

Ormeau

Private property

12.11.5a

1–5

High

6922289

Ormeau

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

High

6921289

Ormeau

Public land

Non remnant

1–5

High

6921251

Willow Vale

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

High

6920568

Willow Vale

Public land

Non remnant

1–5

High

6920357

Willow Vale

Private property

Non remnant

51–100

High

6920033

Willow Vale

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

High

6919726

Ormeau

Reserve

12.11.3

11–25

Very high

6919556

Ormeau

Reserve

12.11.10

51–75

Very high

6915819

Wongawallen

Private property

Non remnant

Very high

6912305

Tamborine

Reserve

12.11.3

11–25

Very high

6909789

Tamborine

Public land

Non remnant

6–10

Very high

6909203

Tamborine

Reserve

12.3.1

1–5

Very high

6908649

Tamborine

Reserve

12.11.5a

1–5

High

6901633

Beechmont

Reserve

12.11.3a

51–75

Very high

6897613

Beechmont

Unknown

12.11.1

Unknown

High

6897436

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

1–5

High

6896351

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

51–100

High

6896020

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

High

6895809

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

11–25

High

6890812

No details

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

High

6889817

Beechmont

Reserve

Non remnant

6–10

High

6886668

Bonogin

Reserve

Non remnant

26–50

High

6882602

Nicholls Scrub

National Park

Non remnant

6–10

High

 

Macadamia jansenii is a small, single or multi-stemmed tree up to 12 m tall (Shapcott and Powell 2011), with generally smooth bark dotted with prominent lenticels (Halford 1997, cited in Costello et al. 2009). The oblanceolate to oblong-elliptic leaves are generally arranged in whorls of three, are 10–18 cm long with an acute apex, tapered base and wavy margins (Harden et al. 2006). Net venation on leaf blades is distinct on both surfaces, especially when held up to the light. Petioles are 2–14 mm long. The cream-brown flowers have tepals that are 7–9 mm long; flowers have been observed in July and September. The globose fruit are 20–25 mm in diameter. Nut shells are thin and smooth and contain a mildly cyanogenic, inedible kernel. Surveys coordinated by the University of the Sunshine Coast in 2019 found almost all plants larger than 1 m in height were multi-stemmed, with larger plants having up to 25 stems/trunks (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

Very little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. It is thought that M. janensii is pollinated by native bees and seed dispersed by vertebrates (Gross and Weston 1992). Most mature individuals are multi-stemmed (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov), suggesting that the species may facultatively re-sprout in response to fire or localised flooding.

Whilst the susceptibility of M. jansenii to fire is not known, commercial Macadamias are sensitive to fire (O’Hare et al. 2004), causing concern for M. jansenii when wildfires came within 10 km of M. jansenii habitat in late 2018 (ABC 2018).

Endemic to the northern part of the SEQ bioregion, M. jansenii is known only from a 4000 m2 area restricted to the upper catchment of Granite Creek in Bulburin National Park, within which the area of occupancy is 16 km2 (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

In 2018, surveys conducted by Keith Sarnadsky on behalf of the Macadamia Conservation Trust located an additional 37 mature trees and associated juveniles, expanding the known habitat along a narrow 6 km reach within the same catchment (MCT 2019).

Follow-up surveys in 2019 by Glenn Hayward and Alison Shapcott (University of the Sunshine Coast) and Liang Ansel Lee (University of Queensland), found 193 plants, 56 of which were less than 1 m in height (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

Macadamia jansenii is found on alluvial terraces of a second order watercourse and on adjacent steep, rocky slopes at about 150 m above sea level, where it occurs on well drained, red brown, sandy clay loams (Gross and Weston 1992; Shapcott and Powell 2011). All known individuals are found within 20 m of a tributary of Granite Creek, Bulburin National Park. Macadamia jansenii is identified as occurring in Regional Ecosystem 12.12.13 (see Table 6). This form of simple notophyll vine forest is characterised by Araucaria cunninghamii (Hoop pine), Alangium villosum (Canary muskheart), Argyrodendron trifoliolatum (Brown tulip oak), Baloghia inophylla (Scrub bloodwood), Brachychiton discolor (Scrub bottletree), Dendrocnide photinophylla (Shiny-leaved stinging tree) and Harpullia pendula (Tulipwood).

The only known population of M. jansenii is summarised in Table 6. This is potentially comprised of up to four subpopulations; however, this cannot be confirmed until genetic analyses are completed (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov). Information is provided on the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat (cleared, RE number or unknown; population size (Pop Size), and conservation priority (very high, high or medium).

Table 6. Known populations of Macadamia jansenii in Australia

Site Id

Location

Tenure

Habitat

Pop Size

Priority

7208293

Bulburin NP, southwest Miriam Vale

National Park

12.12.13

193

Very high

 

Macadamia ternifolia is a perennial lower to mid-storey evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 18 m tall, with brown branchlets dotted with raised lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). The simple, narrow-oblong to narrow-elliptical leaves are arranged in whorls of three, and 10–12 cm long; new growth is pinkish red. Blade tips are pointed and the base tapers to petioles 3–13 mm long (Stanley and Ross 2002). Axillary pinkish or cream flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 4–20 cm long. Compressed rounded fruits are greyish, 1.5–2 cm long with a thin, hard inner shell protecting the nut. The seed kernel is cyanogenic and not edible. Flowering period is June to August with fruiting occurring from March to April.

Total population size is estimated to be between 1,500–2,500 mature individuals. Very little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. Both introduced European honey and native bees appear to be the main pollinators, with native bees being superior pollinators. Seed dispersal is by small rodents and streams (Barry and Thomas 1994, cited in DoE 2019b) and trees can live for over 100 years, with a juvenile period of six years (Queensland CRA/RFA Steering Committee 1997, cited in DoE 2019b).

No information is available on the species’ susceptibility to fire, however, the known sensitivity of commercial Macadamias (O’Hare et al. 2004), suggests application of the precautionary principle.

Macadamia ternifolia is endemic to southern coastal Queensland, with a known national distribution of scattered populations extending from Goomboorian (north of Gympie), south to Mt Nebo northwest of Brisbane. Macadamia ternifolia is found within lowland warm complex notophyll vine forest and Araucarian notophyll vine forest predominantly on basic and intermediate volcanics and alluvia 15–700 m above sea level (ASL) in higher rainfall areas. This species occupies a range of topographic positions, including scree slopes, foot slopes, gullies, benches and riverine terraces. Soils are alluvial or volcanic derived basaltic krasnozems, well drained, with significant surface exposure of rock fragments. In the remnant landscape, M. ternifolia is frequently found in riparian RE types (Powell et al. 2014). The majority of extant M. ternifolia populations are located on the scarps of the Maleny Plateau extending along the Blackall Range predominantly in riparian habitats draining into coastal lowlands to the east and south or the Mary Valley to the west. A cluster of populations is located on the Conondale Ranges west of the Mary River at approximately 600 m ASL (Powell unpublished data). A finger of populations extends northward along coastal foothills to Goomboorian, a distance of approximately 50 km. Macadamia ternifolia is also found in the Sunshine Coast suburb of Buderim and the Brisbane suburbs of Samford Valley and Mt Nebo. Typically, populations are small and tend to occur in clusters within the forest matrix or along riparian zones.

The occupied habitat is approximately 1,350 ha and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 22,000 ha within an area of 3,100 km2. The total population is found within approximately 60 key locations with 5–25 mature specimens at each. Significant population clusters occur in the north from Goomboorian to Cooroy; the centre of the species range in the Blackall Range, Maleny and Buderim; in the Conondale Ranges and west of Kenilworth; and Samford Valley/ Mt Nebo in the south. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution.

Macadamia ternifolia is found in several rainforest regional ecosystems including complex and simple notophyll vine forest and simple microphyll-notophyll vine forest with emergent Araucaria and Argyrodendron. Macadamia ternifolia is identified in the Queensland Herbarium REDD as occurring in endangered RE 12.3.1 (see Table 7), though it is also frequently found in RE 12.8.3, 12.11.10, 12.12.1 and 12.12.16 (Powell unpublished data).

Prioritisation of populations has been assessed using the same criteria as those used for M. integrifolia. The site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat, population size (Pop Size), and the priority (very high, high or medium) of known population clusters of M. ternifolia throughout its distribution is summarised in Table 7.

Table 7. Known populations of Macadamia ternifolia in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID

Location

Tenure

Habitat

Pop Size

Priority

Northern Group

7117921

Goomboorian

Private property

Regrowth

11–25

Medium

7107639

Wolvi

Private property

12.11.16

26–50

High

7098488

Beenham Range

Private property

Regrowth

6–10

Medium

7097408

Gympie

Private property

Regrowth

11–25

High

7089202

Mt Pinbarren

National Park

12.8.13

1–5

Medium

7081477

Skyring Ck

Private property

12.3.2

1–5

Medium

7076845

Mt Cooroy

Reserve

12.8.13

1–5

Medium

7076193

Cooroy

Reserve

12.8.13

11–25

High

7073901

Eerwah Vale

Private property

12.11.10/12.11.2

11–25

Medium

Blackall Range/Maleny/Buderim Group

7063183

Maroochy River

Unknown

12.12.14

Unknown

Medium

7063181

Maroochy River

Unknown

12.12.14

Unknown

Medium

7062218

Yandina

Unknown

Regrowth

1–5

Medium

7061731

Kureelpa

Unknown

Regrowth

1–5

Medium

7058977

Maroochy River

Unknown

12.3.1

6–10

Medium

7057490

Kureelpa

Unknown

12.8.3

1–5

Medium

7056837

Maroochy River

Unknown

12.3.1

Unknown

Medium

7056817

Maroochy River

Unknown

Regrowth

Unknown

Medium

7056691

Maroochy River

Unknown

12.9–10.17d

1–5

Medium

7055983

Mapleton

Private property

12.12.16/12.12.1

11–25

High

7055705

Mapleton

Unknown

12.12.2

1–5

Medium

7055102

Kureelpa

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

7054520

Mapleton

Unknown

12.8.8

1–5

Medium

7053231

Huntingdale

Unknown

12.3.2

6–10

Medium

7052999

Flaxton

Private property

12.8.3

11–25

High

7052853

Mary River

Unknown

12.12.1

Unknown

Medium

7052238

Kenilworth

National Park

12.11.10/12.11.1

6–10

Medium

7052156

Kenilworth

National Park

12.11.10

1–5

Medium

7052104

Woombye

National Park

12.8.3

11–25

Very high

7052050

Woombye

Unknown

12.12.1

Unknown

Very high

7052006

Woombye

Unknown

12.12.1

11–25

Very high

7051870

Kenilworth

National Park

12.11.10/12.11.1

11–25

High

7051767

Mapleton

Unknown

12.12.2

1–5

Medium

7051581

Woombye

Unknown

12.12.15

Unknown

Very high

7051471

Woombye

Reserve

12.12.1/12.12.16

11–25

Very high

7051381

Woombye

Unknown

12.12.2

1–5

Medium

7051204

Woombye

Unknown

12.9–10.14

6–10

Medium

7050788

Woombye

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

7050722

Woombye

Unknown

12.3.2

6–10

Medium

7050267

Mary River

Unknown

Non remnant

Unknown

Medium

7050023

Woombye

Unknown

12.8.3

1–5

Medium

7049928

Woombye

Unknown

12.11.2

Unknown

Medium

7049867

Woombye

Unknown

12.5.2

1–5

Medium

7049153

Woombye

Unknown

12.8.3

1–5

Medium

7048444

Maroochydore

Private property

12.8.3

1–5

Medium

7048413

Buderim

Unknown

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

7048407

Buderim

Unknown

12.8.3

6–10

Medium

7047287

Maleny

Unknown

Non remnant

Unknown

Medium

7042645

Maleny

Unknown

12.12.15a

1–5

Medium

7042237

Maleny

Unknown

12.8.3

Unknown

Medium

7041720

Mooloolabah

Private property

12.3.2

51–100

Very high

7041637

Maleny

Unknown

12.8.3

Unknown

Medium

7040178

Maleny

Unknown

12.9–10.17d

1–5

Medium

7039400

Mooloolah River

Unknown

12.8.3

6–10

Medium

7037856

Maleny

Reserve

12.8.3

26–50

High

7037562

Maleny

Unknown

12.8.3

Unknown

Medium

7037434

Maleny

National Park

12.3.1

26–50

High

7037277

Maleny

National Park

12.8.3

1–5

Medium

7037115

Maleny

Unknown

12.8.3

Unknown

Medium

7037099

Maleny

National Park

12.9–10.16

26–50

High

7035508

Maleny

Reserve

12.12.16/12.12.1

26–50

Very high

7035460

Maleny

Unknown

12.3.1

6–10

Medium

7034844

Maleny

Unknown

12.9–10.16

1–5

Medium

7033713

Maleny

Private property

12.12.16/12.12.1

11–25

High

7033541

Stanley River

Unknown

12.12.16/12.12.1

Unknown

Medium

7032502

Maleny

Unknown

Non remnant

Unknown

Medium

Conondale/Kenilworth West Group

7064410

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.11.10/12.11.3

1–5

Medium

7062348

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.3.1

6–10

Medium

7061868

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.11.1

1–5

Medium

7061458

Kenilworth

National Park

12.3.1

11–25

High

7059446

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.3.1

6–10

Medium

7059191

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.3.1

6–10

Medium

7057075

Conondale

Unknown

12.11.3

Unknown

Medium

7056538

Conondale

Unknown

12.11.10

1–5

Medium

7055837

Kenilworth

Forest lease area

12.11.3

11–25

High

7053653

Conondale

Unknown

12.11.10/12.11.1

1–5

Medium

7052891

Conondale

National Park

12.11.3/12.11.2

26–50

Very high

7052303

Conondale

Unknown

12.11.10

Unknown

Medium

7049120

Mary River

Unknown

12.11.2

Unknown

Medium

7047002

Conondale

National Park

12.11.9/12.11.3

11–25

Very high

7046781

Mary River

Unknown

12.11.1

Unknown

Medium

7046568

Conondale

National Park

12.11.9/12.11.3

26–50

Very high

7046208

Nambour

Unknown

12.11.2/12.11.1

Unknown

Medium

Southern Group

7022865

Woodford

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

7022688

Woodford

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

7004689

Campbells Pocket

Reserve

Non remnant

6–10

Very high

6995309

Burpengary

Reserve

12.3.1

11–25

Medium

6994689

Moorina

Reserve

Non remnant

11–25

Very high

6974489

Draper

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6972817

Mt Nebo

Private property

12.12.16

51–100

Very high

6970589

Mt Nebo

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Very high

6969825

Mt Nebo

Private property

12.12.15

26–50

Very high

6969080

Mt Nebo

National Park

12.11.10

11–25

Very high

 

Macadamia tetraphylla is a perennial mid-storey evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 18 m tall, with greyish-brown branchlets dotted with pale elongated lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). The simple oblong lanceolate leaves are usually arranged in whorls of four, 6–20 cm long and 2–4 cm wide. Blade tips are pointed, margins sharply serrated and petioles are 2–8 mm long (Stanley and Ross 2002). New leaves of M. tetraphylla are bright red in colour, whereas those of M. integrifolia are light green. Axillary pinkish purple flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 15–45 cm long. Compressed rounded fruits are greyish-green, 2–3.5 cm wide with a hard-inner rough surfaced shell protecting the edible kernel. Flowering period is August to September with fruit maturing and falling from March (Hauser and Blok 1992).

Little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. Pollination is thought to be principally carried out by native and European bees with seed dispersal by small rodents and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. Pollen and seed dispersal leading to hybridisation has been observed between wild M. tetraphylla and cultivated M. integrifolia (O’Connor et al. 2015).

A study into the breeding system and fecundity of M. tetraphylla (Pisanu et al. 2009) found that the species had a low fruit to flower ratio and that the species was weakly self-compatible but incapable of self-pollination. Pisanu et al. (2009) identified a lack of light and competition with other more rapidly growing rainforest limits flower production, whilst insect pests and high seed predation, limits seed production and germination. An optimal outbreeding distance of 2 km was identified but the authors concluded that many wild populations do not have conspecifics at optimal distances owing to habitat fragmentation.

Macadamia tetraphylla has moderate to high genetic diversity recorded within the species and its populations, however, relatively low genetic differentiation between populations has been recorded at a regional scale (Peace 2005). Spain and Lowe (2011) investigated the genetics of six wild M. tetraphylla populations, finding a lack of genetic structure among adults. However, in the juvenile cohort, genetic differentiation and relatively high inbreeding scores were identified. The observed patterns were positively correlated with density of adult individuals consistent with the clumped distribution pattern of individuals commonly observed in small fragments (Pisanu 2001).

No information is available on the susceptibility of M. tetraphylla to fire, however, the known sensitivity of commercial Macadamias (O’Hare 2004), suggests application of the precautionary principle.

Macadamia tetraphylla is endemic to eastern Australia, with a known national distribution of scattered populations extending from Mt Cotton south of Brisbane to the Richmond River in northern NSW at an altitudinal range of 30–800 m ASL. Much of the habitat in which it naturally occurs has been almost entirely cleared, significantly altering the original pattern of distribution of the species.

In NSW, the extant distribution of M. tetraphylla is:

In Queensland, the range of M. tetraphylla extends north from the border with NSW along the coastal ranges and valleys to Mt Cotton south east of Brisbane; a distance of approximately 40 km.

Across its range a relatively large number of M. tetraphylla individuals are located in or adjacent to road reserves in disturbed landscapes dominated by the weed tree species camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora); these individuals are potentially important in maintaining connectivity among populations. In addition, M. tetraphylla was frequently inter-planted with banana trees in early banana plantations and survive in the recovering landscape where agricultural activities have long been abandoned.

The occupied habitat is approximately 750 ha, and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 48,000 ha within an area of 2,400 km2. Total population size is estimated to be between 1,500–3,000 mature individuals within approximately 60 key populations with 10–100 mature specimens at each locality. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution.

Macadamia tetraphylla is found in several vegetation communities, including complex notophyll vine forest, littoral rainforest and wet sclerophyll forests. In Queensland, M. tetraphylla is identified in the Queensland Herbarium REDD as occurring in three Least Concern (VMA 1999) rainforest regional ecosystems (RE 12.8.3, 12.11.10 and 12.12.16). In NSW, M. tetraphylla is categorised as a site-managed species under the DPIE Saving our Species Program and occurs in the following seven vegetation classes and four Endangered Ecological Communities (BCA 2016):

          Coastal Floodplain Wetlands

          Coastal Swamp Forests

          Dry Rainforests

          Littoral Rainforests

          North Coast Wet Sclerophyll Forests

          Northern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests

          Subtropical Rainforests

          Subtropical Coastal Floodplain Forest of the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion

          Littoral Rainforest in the New South Wales North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner Bioregions

          Lowland Rainforest in the NSW North Coast and Sydney Basin Bioregions

          Lowland Rainforest on Floodplain in the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion

Prioritisation of populations was undertaken using the same criteria as that for M. integrifolia. A summary of known population clusters of M. tetraphylla throughout its distribution is summarised in Table 8; data includes the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat, population size, and the priority (very high, high or medium). There are areas of range overlap between M. tetraphylla and M. integrifolia, with a significant number of sites occupied by both species and hybridisation occurring between species (Peace 2005). NSW DPIE Saving our Species Program has identified one site, Wollumbin National Park, as a key management site for M. tetraphylla.

Table 8. Known populations of Macadamia tetraphylla in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID

Location

Tenure

Habitat

Pop Size

Priority

Northern Group (QLD)

6915819

Wongawallan

Private property

Non remnant

26–50

Very high

6910421

Eagle Heights

Reserve

12.11.10

6–10

Medium

6909789

Guanaba River Park

Reserve

Non remnant

12–25

Very high

6909566

Beenleigh

Reserve

12.3.7a

Unknown

Medium

6909203

Guanaba

Reserve

12.3.1/12.3.2

1–5

Medium

6903289

Clagiraba Creek

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6901633

Clagiraba

Reserve

12.11.3a

51–75

Very high

6896799

Beechmont

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6896061

Beechmont

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6893046

Beechmont

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6890589

Beechmont

Private property

12.8.3/12.8.4

1–5

Very high

6887900

Bonogin

Public land

12.11.3

6–10

Medium

6887520

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

6886990

Beechmont

Unknown

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6886668

Bonogin

Reserve

26–50

Very high

6885935

Numinbah

Reserve

26–50

High

6884259

Austinville Rd

Public land

12.11.1

6–10

Medium

6881627

Tallebudgera_1

Public land

12.3.2/12.3.1

11–25

High

6881104

Tallebudgera_3

Public land

Dist

1–5

Medium

6881045

Austinville CA

Reserve

12.8.3

6–10

Medium

6880866

Murwillumbah

Unknown

12.8.3

Unknown

Medium

6880024

Currumbin Ck Rd

Public land

11–25

Very high

6879986

Tallebudgera _2

Private property

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

6879510

Natural Bridge

Private property

Non remnant

26–50

High

6879231

Beechmont

Unknown

12.8.8

26–50

Very high

6878209

Currumbin

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6877577

Currumbin

Public land

Non remnant

6–10

Medium

6877226

Natural Bridge

Reserve

12.8.3

11–25

High

6876747

Currumbin

Public land

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6876331

Currumbin

Reserve

12.11.1

Unknown

Medium

6875689

Springbrook

Reserve

12.8.3

12–25

High

Wollumbin (Mount Warning) Group

6882033

Murwillumbah

Unknown

12.11.1

Unknown

Medium

6881194

Bilambil Heights

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6878989

Terranora

Private property

Subtropical rainforest

11–25

High

6877789

Banora Pt

Public land

Not assessed

6–10

Medium

6876942

Duroby

Private property

Early regrowth RF

11–25

Medium

6876798

Bilambil

Private property

Subtropical rainforest

1–5

Medium

6876711

Bilambil

Private property

Brush Box open forest

1–5

Medium

6876161

Bilambil

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6876088

Duroby

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6875592

Bilambil

Reserve

Subtropical rainforest

61–75

High

6875576

Bilambil

Private property

 

26–50

High

6875151

Upper Duroby

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6874389

Hogans Scrub

Public land

Moist forest/rainforest

6–10

Medium

6872321

Chillingham

Private property

Brush Box open forest

26–50

Very high

6872310

Couchy Ck

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6871389

Couchy Ck

Public land

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6870474

Limpinwood

Private property

Non remnant

26–50

Medium

6868009

Chillingham

Private property

Non remnant

1–5

Medium

6867889

Limpinwood NR

Reserve

Rainforest/riparian

6–10

Medium

6867689

Limpinwood Rd

Public land

Eucalypt open forest

11–25

Medium

6867243

Crystal Creek

Private property

Not assessed

51–75

High

6866730

Crystal Creek

Private property

Early regrowth RF

101–200

Very high

6866426

Tyalgum

Private property

Early regrowth RF

101–200

Very high

6864389

Eungella

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6860189

Mt Warning Rd

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6859489

Sia School

Private property

Eucalypt open forest

11–25

High

6859089

Wollumbin

Private property

Eucalypt open forest

11–25

High

6856689

Uki

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6856389

Uki

Private property

Non remnant

26–50

High

6855989

Cedar Ck 1

Private property

Rainforest/riparian

6–10

Medium

6855889

Cedar Ck 2

Private property

Rainforest/riparian

6–10

Medium

Central Group

6854689

Mooball

Private property

Non remnant

11–25

Medium

6849989

Inner Pocket NR

Reserve

Moist eucalypt forest

6–10

Medium

6849289

Blindmouth

Private property

Moist eucalypt forest

11–25

Medium

6849110

Billynudgel

Private property

Moist eucalypt forest

26–50

High

6845178

Main Arm

Public land

Not assessed

1–5

Medium

6843889

Brunswick Heads

Reserve

Coastal complex

6–10

Medium

6842289

Mullumbimby Ck

Private property

Not assessed

11–25

Medium

6841989

Mullumbimby Ck

Private property

Not assessed

11–25

Medium

6841489

Mullumbimby Ck

Private property

Not assessed

11–25

Medium

6837789

Nimbin

Public land

1–5

Medium

6837185

Mullumbimby

Public land

1–5

Medium

6836889

Tuntable Ck Rd

Public land

1–5

Medium

6836399

Lismore

Private property

11–25

Medium

6836270

Upper Coopers Ck

Private property

Moist forest complex

11–25

Medium

6836089

Upper Coopers Ck

Private property

1–5

Medium

6834280

Goonengerry

Public land

1–5

Medium

6834089

Tuntable Ck Rd

Private property

11–25

Medium

6833389

Minyon Falls FR

Reserve

Moist forest complex

11–25

High

6831489

The Channon

Private property

11–25

Medium

6829589

Dorroughby

Private property

1–5

Medium

Southern Group

6814998

Tintenbar

Private property

11–25

Medium

6814050

Tintenbar

Private property

61–75

Medium

6813577

Lennox Head

Private property

6–10

Medium

6813289

Lennox Head

Public land

11–25

Medium

6812289

Lennox Head

Private property

11–25

Medium

6812189

Wollongbar

Public land

6–10

Medium

6811285

Alstonville

Private property

6–10

Medium

6807575

Alstonville

Private property

11–25

Medium

6806785

Alstonville

Reserve

Subtropical rainforest

11–25

Medium

6803113

Dalwood

Private property

Subtropical rainforest

26–50

High

6802932

Alstonville

Reserve

Subtropical rainforest

12–25

Medium

6802759

Dalwood

Private property

Subtropical rainforest

26–50

High

6800889

South Ballina

Private property

11–25

Medium

The long-term impacts of land clearing and habitat fragmentation are underlying factors contributing to the threatened status of Macadamia species. This is exacerbated by ongoing clearing of remnant bushland throughout south east Queensland and north east NSW for horticulture, agriculture, urban and industrial development and associated infrastructure.

The extent of land clearing in some areas of Macadamia habitat has dire consequences for long term persistence of Macadamia species in those areas. Approximately 80% of the Regional Ecosystem communities, most frequently occupied by M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia in Queensland within core areas of their respective ranges, have been cleared (Powell et al. 2014). Depending on the Macadamia species, between 30% and 50% of recorded populations in Queensland occur in areas that are either cleared or are patches of remnant vegetation too small in area to be included in 1:50,000 (SEQ) or 1:100,000 (non-SEQ) regional ecosystem mapping undertaken by the Queensland Herbarium. In NSW, almost the entire extent of the former Big Scrub, thought to comprise the core range for M. tetraphylla, was cleared in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Floyd 1990). Most extant populations of M. tetraphylla occur along the fringes of this area and the foot slopes of Wollumbin (Mount Warning) and its caldera.

Whilst a number of populations of Macadamia occur in protected tenures, such as National Parks and Conservation Reserves, many populations are located on private land. The loss of individual trees or small populations from private land particularly is difficult to detect, reducing the effectiveness of the legislative protection afforded to Macadamia species by State and Commonwealth governments. A relatively large number of Macadamias occur as a single or few individuals in paddocks (left for their edible nuts when the land was cleared), in roadside remnants, or in gullies and scarps too steep to be cleared. These scattered individuals and small populations may have an important role in maintaining connectivity among the population network for each species; ensuring the long-term persistence of these populations, however, is problematic.

Documented impacts of habitat fragmentation on Macadamia species include weed invasion, reduced frequency of optimal outbreeding distance among populations, genetic isolation of populations, and genetic population differentiation resulting in increased population divergence and likely eventual loss of genetic variation in future generations (Pisanu et al. 2009; Spain and Lowe 2011). Fragmented habitat areas are also likely to be more susceptible to fire. Populations in smaller fragments have been shown to have higher reproduction relative to those within intact habitats due to higher availability of resources, especially light (Neal et al. 2010), however, it is thought that these benefits are outweighed by more pervasive threats of isolation and weed invasion (Pisanu et al. 2009). Moreover, Spain and Lowe (2011) found that levels of inbreeding in juveniles in M. tetraphylla populations was related to adult trees density which are higher within small fragments relative to those within intact forests. They speculate that higher levels of seedling establishment and survival in disturbed habitats may lead to higher levels of inbreeding in those habitats.

Land clearance is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

Genetic drift, loss of genetic diversity, inbreeding depression, factors affecting reproductive success, and ability to sustain critical population size all affect the viability of threatened species populations (Lindenmayer and Burgman 2005). When population size is reduced, genetic diversity can be reduced and population viability compromised, sometimes resulting in inbreeding as has been found in small, isolated populations of M. tetraphylla (Spain and Lowe 2011). Some species can tolerate high levels of inbreeding without loss of the ability to reproduce. Even so, small plant populations are still vulnerable to single disturbance events such as wildfire, drought, disease or heavy weed incursion.

The Macadamia species in this Plan occur primarily in small populations, however, considerable debate surrounds what constitutes a viable population in species with naturally small and spatially diffuse populations. In the case of Macadamias, habitat models predict that the species likely occupied contiguous areas of suitable habitat prior to arrival of Europeans and clearing. Limited dispersal ability and the patchy spatial pattern of rainforest communities in the landscape, however, especially in riparian systems, meant that populations were naturally small and patchily distributed in the landscape.

All Macadamia species can maintain themselves via coppicing, reducing the rate of loss of genetic diversity due to drift in small populations and partly explaining why Macadamias have retained relatively high levels of genetic diversity despite apparently naturally small population sizes. The effects of drift are likely to be slowly realised given the long generation times. Drift will lead to a loss of alleles and random differentiation between populations.

Macadamia populations could potentially maintain genetic diversity within fragmented small populations via gene flow due to pollen exchange if there is sufficient connectivity among populations within the landscape matrix. Interpopulation gene flow via pollen of 2.8 km has been documented for M. integrifolia (Neal 2007). Nearest neighbour distance calculations among recorded Macadamia populations show that for each species, many populations are located within 3 km of their two nearest neighbours, especially those located within areas of clusters of populations. Macadamia species appear to maintain themselves via a meta-population structure rather than acting as isolated independent populations.

Whilst pollen exchange between close populations may assist with maintaining genetic diversity, the available data for wild Macadamia species suggest that reproduction is inhibited by a lack of pollinators (Neal 2007; Pisanu et al. 2009). Macadamias are weakly self-compatible, but not capable of autogamy, i.e., they require a pollinator to effect fertilisation; further, outcrossed pollen results in greater seed production (Pisanu et al. 2009). The combined impact of these three factors is to limit seed production by Macadamias. When compounded by the impact of abundant seed predators, such as rats, the result is very low seed germination; this was evident in surveys of wild populations across SEQ undertaken for the Macadamia Conservation Trust during 2015–16 (L. Gould pers. comm. 2017). Further surveys and long-term monitoring are required to understand the likely impact on population persistence.

Macadamias belong to a group of regional subtropical rainforest tree species that produce large hard-shelled seeds and have limited dispersal ability (Rossetto et al. 2008). Whilst in-situ Macadamia populations may be able to maintain themselves in a fragmented landscape better than some other species, there is less evidence that populations are able to be recolonised or restored by neighbouring populations (typical of a meta-population structure). Actions which enhance or at least maintain connectivity between populations and facilitate pollinator movement, may improve interpopulation gene flow through pollen exchange, potentially mitigating some of the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation (though as noted above, this may not be sufficient to redress the compounded effects of poor germination).

Weeds can displace native flora, compete for resources (such as pollinators, light, nutrients and water) and create habitats that are conducive to other exotic species. They can also alter the composition of vegetation communities, patterns of pollination and native seed dispersal. The interface between bushland and other land uses is particularly susceptible to the spread of exotic species that flourish in this altered environment.

Weed species that pose a direct and significant threat to Macadamia habitats are lantana (Lantana camara) and exotic vines such as cat’s claw creeper (Dolichandra unguis-cati) and Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia). All three species were introduced to Australia as garden plant and are now classified as weeds of national significance (WoNS). Cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine pose a significant medium-term threat to Macadamia species as they have the capacity to invade and establish within intact rainforest, forming a thick groundcover overwhelming understorey vegetation and eventually growing to canopy level, progressively smothering and collapsing mature trees. Currently, effective control is limited to mechanical and chemical methods that are expensive, requires specific knowledge about the site and a commitment to regular, long-term follow up. Biological controls for all species have been found and released, however, in most cases it will take years before their effectiveness can be properly assessed (Morin et al. 2009).

Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth). Weeds are identified as a Key Threatening Process under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW).

Invasion of native plant communities by Chrysanthemoides monilifera (Bitou bush and boneseed) is a key threatening process under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW). Macadamia tetraphylla is thought to be at risk from this weed (DECC 2006).

Rainforest communities are normally fire resistant and do not facilitate the spread of fire, however, Macadamias are fire sensitive (O’Hare et al. 2004). There is evidence that Macadamias, along with other rainforest species resprout strongly following fire (Rosedale 1969, Williams 2000, Clarke et al. 2013) and that rainforest elements found in wet sclerophyll forest can survive repeated low intensity fires (Donatiu 2007, unpublished data).

Fire is, however, a direct threat to rainforest remnants in situations where remnant edges are infested with flammable weeds such as lantana or exotic grasses, or where canopy cover has been reduced (such as through smothering of native tree species by cat’s claw creeper and other vine weeds) enabling intrusion of more flammable plant species into remnant patches, thus facilitating the spread of fire into the remnant. Remnants located upslope from grassy or weed-infested areas or from regional ecosystems reliant on a more frequent fire regime, are at increased risk of burning.

The Queensland Herbarium Regional Ecosystem Database (REDD) contains the following fire guideline for each of the four regional ecosystems in which Macadamias are predominantly found:

STRATEGY: Do not burn deliberately. Protection relies on broad-scale management of surrounding country. May need active protection from wildfire in extreme conditions or after prolonged drought. Planned burns should not create a running fire into vine forest. Ensuring conditions of good soil moisture and moisture of litter in surrounding communities will limit fire behaviour/intensity. ISSUES: Fire sensitive and not normally flammable. Some preliminary work suggests rainforest seedling germination from planned burning activities will assist the establishment of seedlings in newly burnt areas, especially due to smoke. There may be issues with lantana (Lantana camera) and other weeds from fire and other disturbance. Remnants may be limited by frequent fire at the margins; this requires further research.

Fire regimes that cause declines in biodiversity is Listed as a Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

Fire is identified as a Key Threatening Process under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW).

When access is available, livestock will utilise Macadamia habitat for shade, water (gallery and riparian rainforests) and grazing. Unmanaged this has the potential to:

The impacts of livestock management activities, such as fencing, mustering activities, hard crossings, access roads and other infrastructure can also have an adverse direct impact.

It is widely predicted that climate change will significantly alter the distribution and composition of rainforest ecosystems in Australia (Hilbert et al. 2001; Williams et al. 2003; Hilbert et al. 2007). In south east Queensland, subtropical rainforest communities are predicted to experience upslope migration in range and increasing rates of turnover (Laidlaw et al. 2011). Mean annual temperature increases of up to 3°C and more variable precipitation regimes are predicted for the region occupied by Macadamia species. These changes will place additional environmental stress on those Macadamia populations already under pressure from the impacts of habitat fragmentation, especially those located in areas of marginal soil moisture availability and/or in exposed locations which are at greater risk of fire.

Climate change is predicted to affect the phenology of Macadamias (Williams et al. 2006) including the initiation of flowering and the maturation of fruit, and potentially that of pollination vectors. Since both onset of flowering and maturation of fruit are known to be determined by climatic parameters, elevated temperatures in late autumn decreasing the probability of suitable conditions for flower bud initiation and/or decreased rainfall in summer affecting nut maturation, are likely to reduce the reproductive capacity of natural populations, especially those occupying the warmer drier end of climate gradients.

Climate change is also predicted to lead to a reduction in the extent of overlap of suitable environment among Macadamia species (Powell et al. 2014) thus potentially resulting in decreased hybridisation between Macadamia species. Research is required into the magnitude of change and the likely impacts on individual populations and species.

Finally, climate change may exacerbate other existing threats such as fire and weeds. For example, climate change may alter the distribution and abundance of some weeds, particularly exotic vines and pasture grasses at remnant edges, or result in vegetation changes within Macadamia habitat, leading to conditions more conducive to the spread of fire.

Loss of climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth). Climate change is also identified as a Key Threatening Process under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW).

DNA marker studies have confirmed hybrid genotypes (Peace 2005) of M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia, and M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla hybrids occur in a 20 km overlap zone where both species co-occur within the same rainforest patch.

This natural predisposition for hybridisation has been found to be causing genetic ‘pollution’ of wild populations. A recent Honours level post graduate study identified gene flow between Macadamia nut cultivars (predominantly based on limited M. integrifolia germplasm) and nearby wild populations of M. tetraphylla (O’Connor 2013). There is a reasonable to high probability that the same phenomenon is occurring between cultivars and M. integrifolia and/or M. ternifolia. The study was, however, limited in scope and further research is required to identify thresholds of spatial proximity between cultivars and wild trees and to determine fitness (survival and reproductive potential) of hybrids among the affected wild populations. The major impact on wild Macadamia species is likely to be limited to the relatively few populations located in areas where Macadamia farms are a major agricultural activity such as the Alstonville Plateau in Northern NSW. In Queensland, the key Macadamia farming area is the Bundaberg region, which is well outside of the range of wild Macadamias. There are, however, numerous farms in south east Queensland and northern NSW within the range of M. integrifolia and/or M. ternifolia where gene flow between cultivars and wild Macadamia populations could potentially occur.

Public perception that Macadamias are a plentiful species and therefore not threatened is an issue. This perception is created by the lack of differentiation between the visual effect of rows of healthy Macadamias in a plantation, the number of non-wild Macadamias planted in backyards and roadsides, and largely hidden wild populations. Recent projects undertaken by the Macadamia Conservation Trust in partnership with Healthy Land and Water, such as ‘Wild About Macadamias’ and ‘Still Wild About Macadamias’, have made significant achievements with regard to raising community awareness, particularly amongst local governments, there is still a large section of the community, from landholders to policy makers, that are not aware of the threat of extinction of wild Macadamias and/or do not consciously make an effort to protect and conserve wild trees.

Macadamia species occur on a variety of land tenures throughout their range and within 15 local government jurisdictions across two States. Populations in both Queensland and NSW are recorded within conservation areas, on public lands such as road reserves and on private property. Given the diversity of land managers, conservation efforts are often limited to site management, the broader ecological needs of the species can be overlooked, and more strategic actions not coordinated.

Variations in legislation, resourcing and prioritisation of threatened species management between the States and local governments can also result in significant discrepancies in the ability of public agencies to assist in the management of populations of Macadamias on both public and private land or to undertake compliance activities. Threatened species data are often confined to point locations, with conservation planning and management prioritised partially on the diversity of rare or threatened species in any particular area or habitat type. This ‘bang for the buck’ approach has significant potential for oversight regarding Macadamia conservation and possibly many other threatened species whose ranges occur over multiple jurisdictions. Furthermore, a lack of information exchange between agencies and with relevant land holders can result in lost opportunities to improve overall management of Macadamia species, and a piecemeal approach to conservation.

A significant amount of research has been undertaken into the conservation status of Macadamia species (primarily due to their crop wild relative status), including studies on the effects of population loss, fragmentation and small population size.

This Plan recommends that an integrated approach that considers recent research findings is applied to conservation of Macadamia species across all jurisdictions.

Phytophthora root rot is a major problem for the Australian Macadamia industry and is a serious threat to wild populations (Akinsami 2016). Of the Phytophthora species impacting Macadamia, Phytophthora cinnamomi is most widespread, has frequent impact and is the most devastating; P. cinnamomi causes stem canker, root rot, tree decline, dieback and tree death (if untreated).

Research is required to determine the extent and severity of P. cinnamomi infestation and the presence of other diseases within wild populations of Macadamia and explore further the variability in susceptibility between the four Macadamia species (Akinsami 2016). Strategies to mitigate and/or prevent spread of P. cinnamomi to Macadamia populations and remnant wild trees are also needed.

Dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi) is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

Predation within Macadamia orchards by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) caused an estimated $500,000 loss in South East Queensland in 2012 (The Courier Mail, 2012). Given the widespread occurrence of feral pigs within the natural distribution of Macadamia, it is likely that feral pigs are having an impact on the survival of wild populations, either directly through predation on nuts or damage to trees or indirectly through the spread of P. cinnamomi; however, research is needed to determine the extent and severity of their impact.

Predation, Habitat Degradation, Competition and Disease Transmission by Feral Pigs is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

Within orchards, the health and productive capacity of Macadamia is inhibited by a large range of insects and diseases, particularly flower caterpillar, spotting bugs, nutborer, blossom blight, husk spot and trunk canker.

Research is needed into the prevalence and impact of these insects and diseases on wild trees and populations.

The major threats facing Macadamias, outlined in the previous section, are shared by the rainforest communities that co-occur with the species. The following section deals with specific threats to individual species and populations.

Only a minority of recorded M. integrifolia sites is located within protected areas and these are often threatened by weeds and incursion by fire. Many populations on private land occur as individual trees dotted across paddocks left for their nuts when clearing occurred or small clusters of individuals in degraded remnants. The engagement and involvement of private landholders in conservation of this species is essential. The high urban growth zone from Beenleigh to the Gold Coast represents a major threat to local remnant wild M. integrifolia populations which are subject to intense pressure from urban expansion and subdivision. Some roadside populations are subject to road widening and ongoing maintenance (slashing, spraying).

Presence of the invasive vine weed cat’s claw creeper is a significant threat to M. integrifolia populations in the northern part of the species distribution where, it is widely established within a diverse range of habitats. Smothering of native vegetation, including canopy trees, by invasive vine weeds results in significant mortality and degradation in the medium to long term. Cat’s claw creeper is recorded in numerous M. integrifolia populations in the Amamoor and Bauple clusters, with a further 25 populations located within 300 m of a mapped occurrence of cat’s claw creeper in the Amamoor Valley (Powell and HQPlantations, unpublished data).

Modelling of the impact of climate change (Powell et al. 2014) suggests that M. integrifolia is likely to be more affected by the impacts of climate change relative to M. ternifolia or M. tetraphylla. This is because M. integrifolia occupies drier and warmer rainforests than the rainforest habitats occupied by the other two species.

The major threat affecting M. janensii is that the known distribution is restricted to one population in an area less than a hectare. This makes the species highly susceptible to a catastrophic event, such as fire or disease. Significant recent effort has been made to reduce the vulnerability of the species through a research project to assess the genetic diversity of the species and identify suitable areas of habitat for establishment of ex-situ populations (Shapcott and Powell 2011). This project was supported by a Threatened Species Network grant and supervised by Associate Professor Alison Shapcott of University of the Sunshine Coast (USC), working in partnership with the local Gurang people and members of the Recovery Team. The research revealed a medium level of genetic diversity among the population, that the species was reproductively out crossing, and that recruitment occurred in pulses, probably commensurate with cycles of favourable environmental conditions such as La Nina events. Clones of the majority of adult individuals have been established through cuttings and are being used to establish four new populations on private land and within a National Park, that together with a fifth population at Tondoon Botanic Gardens in Gladstone which will act as an ex-situ gene bank for the species. However, full establishment and maintenance of these populations until they are self-sustaining is expected to take a decade or more. In the interim, wildfire, disease and inappropriate fire regimes remain as significant threats to the survival of M. jansenii. The increase in the numbers of wild pig in the Bulburin National Park and their destructive actions in rooting for food is also a threat to this species. Due to the isolation of this species from other Macadamia, seed collection for use in planting projects and storage in seed banks will aid conservation.

The impacts of climate change are predicted to be relatively severe for rainforest habitats in Bulburin National Park due to the area experiencing low precipitation and high temperature regimes relative to the same forest communities occupied by the other three Macadamia species (Powell, unpublished data). Extended drought conditions exacerbated by rising temperatures from climate change may facilitate conditions for more frequent and/or more intense fires that could lead to loss of the rainforest mantle that protects the existing population. Lantana is also found in canopy breaks downstream of the source population but is not currently threatening individual trees.

The core distribution of M. ternifolia prior to clearing is located in the Sunshine Coast hinterland. These areas have been heavily cleared for agriculture with less than 20% of the species’ former habitat remaining there (Powell et al. in press). Remnants are highly fragmented and often prone to weed invasion. In the remnant landscape M. ternifolia is also frequently found in riparian and riverine corridors, which themselves have been extensively cleared for agriculture and subsequent urban development, especially in the Sunshine Coast lowlands. Remnant riparian rainforests are prone to invasion by weed trees such as camphor laurel and weed vines such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine on disturbed margins and edges. Many remnants are often too narrow to be mapped at 1:50,000 scale which places constraints on identification of habitat areas. Enhancing habitat linkages and providing appropriate management and protection of small linkage populations is considered important for maintenance of meta-population structure. Habitat in southern and western areas of the species distribution such as the Samford and upper Mary River valleys have also been extensively cleared for pasture, cropping and forestry, however, the species is present within reserve areas at elevations up to 700 m ASL in the Conondale National Park.

Excepting for those populations located within the Conondale National Park, there are no known large areas of contiguous habitat containing populations of M. ternifolia. Populations are generally small numbering less than 25 adult individuals and are more distant from each other compared with M. integrifolia, thus having lower connectivity among smaller more isolated populations in a landscape that is highly fragmented and subject to high pressures from ongoing human development.

Modelling of the change in distribution of M. ternifolia under climate change suggests that this species will be less impacted by current projections of future climate compared with the other three Macadamia species, however, areas of high suitability climate niche is predicted to shift to upland areas of the Maleny/Blackall Range and the Conondale Ranges (Powell et al. 2014).

Macadamia tetraphylla has experienced a greater loss of habitat from land clearing relative to M. integrifolia or M. ternifolia, with the effective loss of the vast majority of the southern and central parts of its former range. Macadamia tetraphylla populations in these areas are generally small, isolated and at risk of hybridisation through pollination from nearby Macadamia nut farm cultivars, which are predominantly based on M. integrifolia germplasm (O'Connor 2013).

The species is now most frequently found on the core of Wollumbin (Mount Warning) and its caldera, along the Border Ranges and foothills between the coast and Numinbah, and along the coastal ranges and valleys from the NSW border to Beenleigh. The diversity of M. tetraphylla habitats and tenures through these areas presents complex challenges for planning and management, with a range of different practices required to effectively manage threatening processes.

The high urban growth zone from Beenleigh to the Gold Coast represents a major threat to local remnant wild M. tetraphylla populations which are subject to intense pressure from urban expansion and subdivision. Some roadside populations are at risk from road widening and ongoing maintenance activities, such as slashing and spraying.

Coastal populations found in littoral rainforest are highly susceptible to fragmentation and edge effects resulting from clearing for urban development and other land uses. These habitats are also vulnerable to invasion by aggressive weeds, such as lantana and asparagus fern (Asparagus spp.), which can modify remnant vegetation structure and composition. In NSW, M. tetraphylla is identified as a species at risk from Bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera) (DECC 2006).

The relatively wet and cool conditions on the slopes of Wollumbin (Mount Warning), its caldera and along the Border Ranges, make it likely that populations in these areas are less vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Powell et al. 2014). Macadamia tetraphylla populations located outside these areas are more at risk to the potential consequences of climate change that include increased environmental stress and lowered reproductive potential.

This risk assessment considers the likelihood of a threat occurring (Probability) and the level of significance of the threat (Consequence). The Probability of a threat occurring is evaluated on a sliding scale of five categories (from ‘likely to ‘remote’), and the Consequence of a threat is evaluated on a sliding scale of six categories (from ‘negligible’ to ‘catastrophic’); definition of these categories used is provided in Appendix 2: Risk probability, consequence and impact analysis.

Probability and Consequence are combined in a matrix to provide an ordinal level of Risk associated with particular threatening process ranked from 0 (being circumstances where no threat exists) to 4 (where a catastrophic level of threat exists). See Appendix 2: Risk probability, consequence and impact analysis and Figure 2 for details. Threats are further classified according to the timeframe over which they are likely to have maximum impact on species survival: Short < 5 years, Medium (M) 5–15 years and Long term (L) >15 years. The derived table (Table 9) provides a basis for prioritisation of threats to guide management actions.

Table 9. Threat prioritisation

Threat

Impacts

Probability

Consequence

Risk (0–4)

Time (S, M, L)

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Loss of individuals

Likely

Moderate

2

L

Loss of populations

Possible

Catastrophic

4

L

Reduced connectivity and gene flow with genetic consequences

Likely

High

3

M, L

Reduced habitat available for establishment

Likely

Moderate

2

M, L

Reduced ecosystem viability

Likely

High

3

L

Small populations

Isolation; loss of diversity

Likely

Very high

4

M, L

Degradation of habitat; change in environment

Likely

High

3

M, L

Reduction in pollinators

Likely

High

3

M, L

Weeds

Increased fire risk at ecotones

Likely

Moderate

2

S, M, L

Vine weeds

Change in habitat structure, composition, and function; loss of individual trees

Likely

Very high

4

S, M, L

Reduced recruitment

Likely

Very high

4

S, M, L

Fire

Habitat degradation through inappropriate fire regimes

Likely

Moderate

2

M, L

Loss of populations through wildfire

Possible

Very high

3

M, L

Loss of only wild population of M. jansenii

Occasional

Catastrophic

4

S, M, L

Unmanaged livestock

Grazing and trampling

Likely

Moderate

2

S, M

Climate change

Environmental stress

Possible

Moderate

2

M, L

Reduced reproduction

Possible

High

3

L

Local extinctions

Possible

High

3

L

Genetic pollution

Hybridisation of M. tetraphylla or M. ternifolia from Macadamia nut farm cultivar pollen

Likely

High

3

M, L

Pollen transfer from cultivated M. integrifolia to wild M. integrifolia

Likely

Moderate

2

M, L

Disease

Loss of populations

Occasional

Very high

3

M

Loss of only wild population of M. jansenii

Possible

Catastrophic

4

S, M

Public perception

False sense of security through presence of cultivars

Likely

Moderate

3

S, M

Apathy

Occasional

Moderate

2

S, M

Uncoordinated conservation

Ad hoc conservation of Macadamia species

Possible

Moderate

2

S, M, L

The overall objective of the previous Recovery Plan, the Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan (SMSRP), was to protect wild populations of the four nominated species from decline, ensure their long-term viability, and raise awareness of flora conservation issues within the community.

In the five years since the SMSRP was approved, significant progress has been made towards achieving these objectives. Many key actions have been implemented, through a logical sequence of field surveys to improve knowledge of the distribution and abundance of Macadamia in the remnant landscape and building scientific knowledge of the species’ conservation status, whilst undertaking planning and on-ground actions and raising community awareness.

Significant improvement of the knowledge base has been made through publication of six papers in the science literature on wild Macadamia species, several of which were undertaken through the endeavours of Recovery Team members (Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership). Additionally, two research studies on the impact of climate change and potential for genetic pollution of wild Macadamia species have been completed and are either currently in preparation for publication or have been submitted for publication.

The threat profile facing Macadamia species has been refined through field survey and research. The impacts of habitat fragmentation may be mixed, at least in the short term; two research studies have shown that fecundity in Macadamia populations is higher in smaller fragments relative to those within intact habitats. However, the benefits may be outweighed by more pervasive medium term influences such as habitat degradation and isolation. Invasion of weeds into habitat remnants is a major threat, particularly vine weeds such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine. Modelling of the impacts of climate change, predicts that the geographic extent of suitable climate niche will contract to areas that are currently cooler and generally at higher elevation that the majority of extant populations. A recent Honours level study (O’Connor, 2013) has found that pollen from Macadamia orchard cultivars is being incorporated into nearby wild M. tetraphylla populations; however, more research is required to inform development of management guidelines.

Raising awareness of flora conservation issues within the community has been carried out in tandem with population surveys. This has been achieved through community information sessions at local halls and stalls at various environmental events hosted by local governments or community groups. Planting of specimens of each of the four Macadamia species and installation of interpretation signage has been undertaken in six Council Botanic Gardens with good media coverage. Workshops and presentations have been given to local government environment staff and interpretation material, including a DVD and ‘The Macadamia Story’ booklet, has been produced and disseminated as opportunities have become available. The Macadamia Conservation Trust has established a website with information about Macadamias and monthly updates on activities.

However, the SMSRP has not fully achieved its recovery objectives in implementation of on ground works. This has been due to a combination of factors including deficiency in the fundamental knowledge required to prioritise on ground works, resource limitations and the relatively short timeframe (8 years) since the SMSRP was written.

An overview of the outcomes achieved against each of the SMSRP performance criteria is provided below.

In the five years since the original SMSRP was written, more than 100 surveys of populations of Macadamia species have been undertaken, nearly all of which were previously unrecorded. Voucher specimens were obtained from 26 Queensland populations and submitted to the Queensland Herbarium along with population and site details. Upload of population locations and details of all new sites to state government agency databases such as WildNet (Queensland DES) and BioNet (NSW) databases will be undertaken in 2014.

Identification of habitats critical to survival of Macadamia species requires knowledge of the distribution and abundance of Macadamia populations, identification of priority populations, habitats and threat assessment. These actions are underway, but yet to be completed.

However, some progress with has been made to reduce the impact of threatening processes on Macadamia habitats in several areas. For example:

Increase in landowner capacity to manage and conserve threatened Macadamia populations has been largely affected through information dissemination during site visits, community information sessions and workshops, which generally have been well attended and received. Liaison with local government officers has encouraged support for private landholders through council grants and ongoing support programs for Land for Wildlife and voluntary conservation agreement landholders, such as Management Plans and on ground works. Queensland regional Natural Resource Management (NRM) organisations and NSW North Coast Local Land Services have been encouraged to prioritise funding support for Macadamia habitat conservation and promote this to their communities.

Whilst not been measured quantitatively, there has been a significant increase in the extent and number of on-ground projects to manage priority macadamia habitat. Evidence of this has been gained through consultation with local governments, NRM groups and community groups, such as Sunshine Coast Council, City of Gold Coast, Redland City Council, Scenic Rim Regional Council, Noosa Landcare, Gold Coast Catchment Association, Gympie Landcare, Big Scrub Landcare, Healthy Land and Water.

The Macadamia Conservation Research Network (MCRN) was a subset of the Macadamia Conservation Committee (MCC) tasked with development and oversight of Macadamia research, as well as ensuring the MCC was up to date with relevant research. The two priority research goals identified in the SMSRP – modelling of impact of climate change and investigation of potential of genetic pollution of wild Macadamia from orchard cultivar pollen – were developed into research programs and have been implemented; the results will be disseminated through publication in the peer reviewed science literature. NB. The MCRN was renamed in 2018 to become the Macadamia Conservation Research Committee.

During the five years of the SMSRP, six research papers have been published in the peer reviewed scientific literature, and two more are in preparation. The results of these studies will be integrated into future activities and information products.

Significant effort has been devoted to this achievement of this criteria, including the development of new information product, displays at local and regional events, media releases, public activities (such as ex situ plantings), although much remains to be done. A Macadamia conservation website was launched in 2014; this is a key element in achieving this goal.

As per 2b: Increase in landholder capacity to manage and conserve threatened southern Macadamia species populations.

Implementation of the Recovery Plan is carried out under the supervision of the MCC, which meets 3–4 times annually to review progress and prioritise activities going forward. The MCC is comprised of a multi-disciplinary panel of people who collectively have unparalleled knowledge and expertise of Macadamia species and their conservation. Progress in implementation of the Recovery Plan is measured formally via biannual reports that are produced as part of the compliance requirements of the umbrella grant provided by Horticulture Australia Limited for implementation of the SMSRP.

Ensure the long-term viability of all four Macadamia species through maintaining existing populations and implementing measures to promote recovery.

Table 10. Summary of specific objectives and threats addressed

Specific Objectives

Threats Addressed

1. Continue to identify and evaluate the extent and quality of Macadamia species populations and their habitat

Habitat loss and fragmentation, Climate change, Uncoordinated conservation

2. Reduce and manage the major threatening processes affecting Macadamia species and their habitat

Habitat loss and fragmentation, Weeds, Vine weeds, Fire, Unmanaged livestock

3. Increase knowledge of Macadamia species and their ecology to affect their conservation and management

All

4. Improve awareness and understanding of Macadamia species, especially the management requirements of these species and their major threats

Public perception, Uncoordinated conservation

5. Manage, monitor and evaluate the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Uncoordinated conservation

 

Detailed knowledge of the distribution and abundance of Macadamia species has been acquired through field surveys conducted during the life of the previous Recovery Plan. This provides solid evidence that Macadamia species are sufficiently diverse, abundant and connected in the remnant landscape to persist in the short term if populations and habitats are protected and threats are mitigated through appropriate management. Key to achieving this is a coordinated, cross-tenure approach that ensures further loss of essential habitat within areas of key population clusters is avoided.

Weeds remain the single greatest threat to Macadamia species in the short to medium term, as they have the capacity to retard rehabilitation of degraded areas and in the worst cases, invade and transform intact rainforest habitats. In the longer term, impacts arising from habitat fragmentation including degradation, inbreeding and drift are likely to become more pervasive. These impacts will be exacerbated with further habitat clearing and loss of individuals or populations, particularly priority populations. Climate change is also highly likely to place many populations under additional threat through increased environmental stress and reduced reproductive potential. Loss of genetic diversity and/or hybridisation through pollen from orchard cultivars is also a potential medium to long term problem. Given these factors the recovery approach adopted in this Recovery Plan is to focus on outcomes that address short term goals whilst considering the medium- and long-term threats. For example, stratifying the identification of critical populations and habitats and the threats they face (based on short to medium term considerations), to identify those which are likely to be most resilient to climate change and have lower risk of contamination from cultivar pollen.

Action 1.1 Determine whether additional populations of Macadamia species occur within southern Queensland and northern NSW

Continue to carry out strategic searches for unrecorded populations of Macadamia species as opportunities or new information (such as essential habitat mapping) comes to hand. Searches will concentrate on areas highly likely to provide habitat for Macadamia species, especially those that link extant populations. All new information to be submitted to appropriate government databases, including the National Forest Inventory (ABARES), the Tree Seed Centre (CSIRO), Queensland’s WildNet (DES), NSW BioNet (DPIE) Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) and relevant local governments.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, botanists, community groups, landholders

Action 1.2 Record data from previously unrecorded Macadamia populations, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues

All new information collected to be submitted to appropriate government databases, including the National Forest Inventory (ABARES), the Tree Seed Centre (CSIRO), WildNet (DES), BioNet (DPIE), Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) and relevant local governments.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: AG, MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, botanists, community groups, landholders

Action 1.3 Survey known Macadamia populations for data deficiencies, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues

Some records of Macadamia populations are data deficient. Others are dated, may have been lost to clearing, or are not true wild populations. An ongoing strategic survey program of selected populations where data is deficient or more than ten years old needs to be undertaken, concentrating on those populations that are large, important in linking the network of populations, in secure tenure, or at the ends of deterministic environmental gradients.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DPIE, LLS, DES, local governments, botanists, community groups, landholders

Action 1.4 Use the results of Macadamia population surveys together with research outcomes to systematically prioritise populations for conservation, management and research purposes within an adaptive framework

Prioritisation will enable strategic allocation of limited resources to conservation of populations that make a significant contribution to the long-term viability of a species. Elements to be considered in prioritisation will be defined by the MCC, but could include factors such as unique genotypes, genetic diversity, population size, reproductive viability, level of protection, location within overall species distribution (such as edge of range), extent of habitat important to survival, proximity to habitat linking populations, landscape connectivity and threat mitigation ability.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, botanists

Action 2.1 Provide information on the habitats critical to the survival of priority Macadamia populations to government agencies at all levels to assist with legislative and planning protection

Macadamia populations are found throughout the fastest growing region in Australia. Land managers and land use planners require detailed information about the location and priority of remnant populations to improve decision-making with regard to activities that may impact on Macadamia populations or exacerbate the threatening processes that they face. Macadamia population data together with peer reviewed published habitat models will be used to develop essential habitat mapping and climate change projections for Macadamia species. All information collected on Macadamia populations will be submitted to appropriate government databases, including WildNet (DES), BioNet (DPIE), Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) and relevant local governments.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, AG, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers

Action 2.2 Mitigate climate change impacts on Macadamia through planning protection and on ground implementation

Modelling of the impact of climate change on Macadamia habitat was undertaken in 2013 (Powell et al. 2013). The resultant mapping needs to be made more widely accessible and, particularly, governments need to be encouraged to incorporate outcomes into planning schemes and policies. Further dissemination of the outcomes to the wider community, particularly regional NRM organisations and Landcare and conservation groups, will assist with implementation of climate change mitigation strategies.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups, landholders

Action 2.3 Negotiate appropriate agreements with private landholders to establish greater long-term security for wild Macadamias

Private landholders with priority populations of wild Macadamias will be encouraged to enter into voluntary conservation agreements (such as Land for Wildlife) or establish conservation covenants (such as nature refuge) through local or state government. Landholders with wild Macadamia trees or non-priority Macadamia populations will also be encouraged to participate in conservation partnership programs.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, Queensland Trust for Nature (QTfN), NSW Biodiversity Conservation Trust (BCT), regional NRM organisations, community groups, landholders

Action 2.4 Establish ex-situ populations for M. jansenii at multiple sites

The known distribution of this species is restricted to one population. Ex-situ populations have recently been established at five sites: Bulburin National Park and Thornhill Station and a fifth population at Tondoon Botanic Gardens, Gladstone. Continue to work with stakeholders to complete establishment, monitoring and maintenance of ex-situ populations.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, USC, Gladstone Botanic Gardens, Gidarjil Development Corporation, landholders

Action 2.5 Establish seed banks and/or seed orchards

Identify appropriate source trees, based on the outcomes of genetic research into the diversity of wild populations, and establish seed banks or seed orchards from representative populations of all species.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, AG, state governments, local governments, Botanic Gardens, regional NRM organisations, community groups, researchers

Action 2.6 Develop provenance protocols (for seed and tube stock) to guide Macadamia propagation and planting

Hybridisation and pollination by cultivars are a threat to wild trees and populations of three Macadamia species (not M. jansenii). Development of provenance protocols (for seed and tube stock) to guide Macadamia plantings will reduce the threat to wild trees and inform actions to enhance existing populations and establish new populations in appropriate habitats.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, AG, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups, researchers, native plant nurseries

Action 2.7 Support land managers to develop property management plans that include wild Macadamia conservation and threat mitigation

Property management planning is an important tool to help land managers improve understanding and management of their land. Land managers with wild Macadamia habitat on their properties will be strongly encouraged to develop property management plans that:

Land managers are also encouraged to include the above activities in existing management plans for properties containing wild Macadamia. Additionally, land managers are encouraged to consider collaboration with neighbouring land managers for the purpose of developing strategic plans to undertake the above activities.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups

Action 2.8 Source and provide resources and incentives to land managers for long-term protection of Macadamia habitat appropriate to the tenure of the habitat

Protection and rehabilitation of Macadamia habitats requires practical resources including materials and labour to remove invasive weeds, erect fences and manage fire and livestock. All levels of government, philanthropic and commercial organisations and the Macadamia industry, are to be encouraged to provide financial and other support for the management and/or rehabilitation of important Macadamia populations or their habitats, particularly given likely benefits provided to other threatened flora and fauna species and threatened vegetation communities. Land managers should be encouraged and assisted to develop submissions to funding bodies for resources to protect Macadamia species and their habitats.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: AG, MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups, philanthropic organisations, commercial organisations, Macadamia industry, land managers

Action 2.9 Identify, monitor and manage weed, fire and livestock threats for priority populations

Use the results of population surveys to assess the extent and severity of weed, fire and livestock threats and to develop a targeted threat mitigation strategy.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, Fire and Biodiversity Consortiums, community groups, land managers

Action 2.10 Undertake release of biocontrol agents for weeds such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine at appropriate sites and monitor results

Cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine are threatening Macadamia trees and their habitat in many locations. Resource limitations often prohibit the control of these weeds through physical or chemical methods and biocontrol release may be appropriate to reduce weed impacts at these sites. Work with Biosecurity Queensland, community groups and other organisations raising biocontrol agents to undertake biocontrol release in partnership with land managers and implement appropriate monitoring.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DAF, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups, land managers

Action 3.1 Encourage research to address gaps in the current understanding of Macadamia species ecology and conservation requirements

The following gaps in knowledge of Macadamia ecology and conservation requirements need to be addressed in order to mitigate threats:

The MCC will work with the Macadamia Conservation Research Committee (MCRC) to prioritise, resource and undertake research.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, land managers

Action 3.2 Increase knowledge of the structure of genetic diversity in wild populations to assist prioritisation of populations for conservation

Undertake research to improve knowledge of the distribution of genetic diversity among Macadamia populations, targeting those that are under threat, geographically isolated, at the edge of range or deterministic environmental gradients, or identified as a priority population within this Recovery Plan. The results to be used to assist with prioritisation for conservation and identifying the need for specific management actions to maintain genetic diversity, including establishment of ex-situ populations.

Priority: Low

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRN, researchers

Action 3.3 Improve understanding of the consequence of pollination of wild Macadamia populations from domestic germplasm and impacts on long-term conservation

Pollination of wild M. tetraphylla by industry cultivars and garden specimen has been identified in a recent honours level post graduate study. However, the scope of the study was limited, and the extent of hybridisation found to be restricted to seedling and juvenile cohorts in the affected populations. Further research is required to establish the extent of the phenomenon across the three Macadamia species affected, the extent of survivorship of hybrid individuals and to develop of a mitigation strategy. Liaise with the Australian Macadamia Society (AMS) and DAFF to investigate opportunities to reduce this threat, such as incorporating appropriate measures in the Macadamia industry Code of Sound Orchard Practice.

Priority: Low

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRN, AMS, DAF, Macadamia growers, researchers

Action 3.4 Facilitate the use of traditional ecological knowledge in the recovery of Macadamia species

Traditional owner groups have highlighted the importance of conserving threatened Macadamia species. Macadamia nuts have been recorded as a valuable food, trading and cultural resource to Aboriginal people (SEQTOLSMA members pers. comm.). The MCC will work with Traditional Owners and other Aboriginal stakeholders to appropriately document and share knowledge and stories that improve conservation outcomes for Macadamia species.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, LLS, regional NRM organisations, Aboriginal and Traditional Owner groups

Action 3.5 Establish long-term monitoring programs for priority Macadamia populations and disseminate the results

A long-term monitoring program has been initiated for four M. integrifolia sites in South East Queensland. The methodology is based on Laidlaw et al. (2011), and encompasses changes in habitat composition and condition, population dynamics (including population size and structure) and threats. This program requires expansion to include representative sites for all Macadamia species. Results to be provided to land managers and land use planners to guide protection of Macadamia populations.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, land managers

Action 3.6 Update models of the projected impact of climate change on Macadamia ecology, extent of habitat and threatening processes and disseminate the results

Climate change will affect the phenology (for example, flowering and fruit maturation), hybridisation between, and reproductive capacity of Macadamia species. Increasing temperatures and variable rainfall patterns may also affect the distribution of these species, the composition and integrity of their rainforest habitats, the impact of current and sleeper weeds, and the intensity, seasonality and frequency of fire. Climate models of predicted impacts of climate change will be updated on a regular basis as new information comes to hand and the results disseminated to land use planners and land managers, as well as incorporated into Recovery Plan review and implementation.

Priority: Low

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers

Action 3.7 Research outcomes are promoted and made easily accessible to land managers, land use planners and the wider community

Priority research results will be published in the peer reviewed scientific literature. The MCC in partnership with the MCRN and research partners will disseminate and promote of research outcomes through media and networks to facilitate inclusion of latest ecological research in management and planning for Macadamia conservation.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRN

Action 4.1 Develop community education tools that build understanding of Macadamia species and their conservation management requirements

Misconceptions regarding the status of Macadamia and information of the conservation management requirements needs to be built within the broader community and with land managers. The MCC will investigate opportunities to: distribute Macadamia species profiles to landholders, install signage at significant roadside remnants, profile species in local newspapers, and develop fact sheets on threatening processes. A website devoted to Macadamia conservation has been established and is managed by the Macadamia Conservation Trust. Monthly articles are contributed to the Australian Macadamia Society e-newsletter which links to the website. Continue to raise the profile of Macadamia conservation in the public arena through giftings of each species along with interpretation signage to botanic gardens, media releases and other measures.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DTMR, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, land managers

Action 4.2 Provide information to public and private land managers (including landholders and Macadamia growers) on known locations of wild Macadamia species to ensure they are considered when making land management decisions

Disseminate and promote the results of Macadamia population surveys, through media, information products, targeted engagement and the inclusion of data in publicly accessible databases, such as WildNet, BioNet, publications and media.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, AG, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups, botanists

Action 4.3 Continue to develop opportunities for promotion of Macadamia species conservation status

Ongoing promotion of Macadamia conservation issues through local, regional and international media and events will improve community awareness of the status of Macadamias.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, community groups

Action 4.4 Liaise with state government agencies, local governments, and regional NRM organisations in order to incorporate Macadamia conservation into their biodiversity conservation and natural resource management strategies

The distribution of Macadamia species spans 15 local government areas, three regional bodies and two state governments. Whilst many are taking a proactive role in Macadamia conservation and management, with the exception of planning for wildlife corridors, each is primarily focussed on the geographic extent of their respective jurisdictions. Conservation of Macadamia species requires a coordinated approach that accounts for individual actions and facilitates implementation of broader initiatives that spans the species’ geographic distribution, to ensure that optimum outcomes are achieved. The MCC has a lead role in this coordinated conservation, ensuring that past activities supported through substantial investment by the Australian Macadamia industry on behalf of the community are built upon in the ongoing development and implementation of this Recovery Plan.

Priority: High

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRN, DES, DPIE, LLS, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, land managers

Action 4.5 New ecological information is incorporated into information products and materials

The MCC will undertake a review of information products, including online materials, it develops as required to ensure the latest ecological research is incorporated.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: MCC, MCRN

Action 5.1 Maintain the role of the Macadamia Conservation Committee as the coordinating body for the Recovery Plan

In 2013, the Macadamia Conservation Trust, in consultation with the MCC and with the support of the AMS (trustees for the MCT), commissioned the development of a Business Plan to guide the activities and operations of both the MCT and MCC to assist in maximising conservation outcomes (deVos Consulting 2013). The Business Plan includes Terms of Reference for both the MCT and MCC and confirms the role of the MCC to:

Members of the MCC are appointed by the AMS on recommendation from the MCC on the required mix of skills and background and may include Macadamia growers, scientists and researchers, conservation specialists NRM and community groups, together with representatives of government departments and instrumentalities. The composition of the MCC is comprised of individuals who collectively possess the range of skills, expertise and experience required to oversee implementation of the Recovery Plan and is reviewed annually.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: AMS, MCC, State agencies, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, industry, community groups

Action 5.2 Monitor and evaluate the outcomes of the Recovery Plan using an adaptive management framework

This Recovery Plan provides the guiding document for the MCT and MCC, with implementation discussed and reviewed during regular meetings of the MCC. Biennial monitoring and evaluation will be undertaken by the MCC in consultation other appropriate stakeholders, and the results distributed to stakeholders.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: AMS, MCC, State agencies, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, industry, community groups

Management prescriptions necessary for the maintenance and protection of Macadamia species include:

Table 11. Summary of actions to mitigate threats

Threat

Current Actions

Future Actions

All Species

Habitat loss and fragmentation

  • Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations
  • Provision of Macadamia population data to relevant government authorities (local, state and federal) to assist with legislative and planning protection and guide public land management
  • Provision of new Macadamia population data to relevant government authorities (local, state and federal) to assist with legislative and planning protection
  • Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations, Fire and Biodiversity Consortiums and other relevant organisations to access resources for conservation of Macadamia habitat on private properties
  • Liaison with public land managers to encourage conservation of Macadamia habitats on their properties
  • Sourcing of additional resources to assist land managers with conservation of Macadamia habitat
  • Re-survey Macadamia populations to assess changes in population number structure and threat profile
  • Undertake population viability analysis and investigate differences in genetic diversity between juvenile and adult cohorts
  • Further investigation (building on current knowledge) into genetic changes to Macadamia populations arising from habitat fragmentation and implementation of key outcomes

Small populations

  • Studies of genetic characterisation of Macadamia species and impact of habitat fragmentation on the population viability (UQ and USC)
  • Development of ex-situ gene banks
  • Targeted research on population genetics
  • Continue investigation building on current knowledge into genetic changes to Macadamia populations arising from habitat fragmentation

Weeds

  • Work with stakeholders to reduce the impact of cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine
  • Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations
  • Assessment of Macadamia populations to determine level of weed impact and particularly the presence of transformer weed species, such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine
  • Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations and other relevant organisations to access resources for conservation of Macadamia habitat on private properties
  • Provision of resources to land managers to reduce the impact of specific weed species in areas of known essential habitat
  • Liaison with public land managers to encourage conservation of Macadamia habitats on their properties
  • Sourcing of additional resources to assist land managers with conservation of Macadamia habitat
  • Identify sites suitable for release of biocontrol agents
  • Work with stakeholders to set up monitoring sites to assess the impacts of cat’s claw creeper on Macadamia populations

Fire

  • Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations
  • Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations, Fire and Biodiversity Consortiums and other relevant organisations to reduce the threat of fire to Macadamia habitats

Unmanaged livestock

  • Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations
  • Provision of resources to land managers to reduce the impact of livestock in areas of known essential habitat

Climate change

  • Modelling of the projected impact of climate change on the ecology, distribution, and habitat of Macadamia species
  • Work with stakeholders to set up four long term monitoring sites occupied by Macadamia species
  • Resurvey long term monitoring plots at suitable intervals to assess change in vegetation composition and Macadamia population demographics over time
  • Provide results of modelling to land use planners
  • Identify appropriate mitigation measures and develop action-oriented implementation strategy
  • Use modelling results for targeted engagement of land managers for implementation of mitigation actions

Genetic pollution

  • Improve understanding of the consequence of pollination of Macadamia species from domestic germplasm and impacts on long-term conservation

Public perception

  • Production of species profile leaflet for Macadamia species. Production of Macadamia Story Booklet. Development of a Macadamia conservation website. Gifting of Macadamia species along with interpretation signage to local, regional and state capital botanic gardens. Host interpretation stalls at selected community and environment events
  • Continue to develop opportunities for promotion of Macadamia status, for example, through local and regional media, events, social media
  • Development of community education tools for land managers that build understanding of the conservation management requirements of Macadamia species

Uncoordinated conservation

  • Coordinated implementation of recovery actions by the MCT in partnership with Councils and regional NRM organisations through the Wild about Macadamias project
  • Build partnerships in Wild about Macadamias to encompass and support a wider range of land managers
  • Encourage local and state government involvement in the Recovery Team

Macadamia jansenii

Lack of ex-situ gene bank

  • Establishment of four ex-situ wild populations and secure population at Tondoon Botanic gardens is underway
  • Completion of establishment of an ex-situ gene bank for M. jansenii at Tondoon Botanic Gardens, Gladstone. Continue to establish, monitor and maintain all ex-situ wild populations until self-sufficient

The indicative costs of recovering species identified in this plan are detailed in Table 12. Some of these actions are already underway (or planned) in existing management plans and programs. Integration of this plan with existing programs will result in the most efficient and effective use of resources for the conservation of Macadamias.

Table 12. Costs associated with recovering species in the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Action

Cost estimate ($)

Yr 1

Cost estimate ($)

Yr 2

Cost estimate ($)

Yr 3

Cost estimate ($)

Yr 4

Cost estimate ($)

Yr 5

Cost estimate ($)

Total

1.1 Determine whether additional populations of Macadamia species occur within southern Qld and northern NSW

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

1.2 Record data from previously unrecorded Macadamia populations, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

1.3 Survey known Macadamia populations for data deficiencies, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

1.4 Use the results of Macadamia population surveys together with research outcomes to systematically prioritise populations for conservation, management and research purposes within an adaptive framework

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

12,500

2.1 Information on the habitats critical to the survival of priority Macadamia populations is provided to government agencies at all levels to assist with legislative and planning protection

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

2.2 Negotiate appropriate agreements with landholders to establish greater long-term security for priority areas on private property

15,000

15,000

15,000

15,000

15,000

75,000

2.3 Establishment of ex-situ populations for M. jansenii at multiple sites

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

12,500

2.4 Establish seed banks and/or seed orchards

2.5 Develop provenance protocols (for seed and tube stock) to guide Macadamia propagation and planting

2.6 Provide information to public and private land managers (including landholders and Macadamia growers) on known locations of wild Macadamia species to ensure they are considered when making land management decisions

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

2.7 Support land managers to develop property management plans that include wild Macadamia conservation and threat mitigation

25,000

25,000

25,000

25,000

25,000

125,000

2.8 Source and provide resources and incentives to land managers to seek long-term protection of Macadamia habitat appropriate to the tenure of the habitat

240,000

240,000

240,000

240,000

240,000

1,200,000

2.9 Identify, monitor and manage weed, fire and livestock threats for priority populations

40,000

40,000

40,000

40,000

40,000

200,000

2.10 Undertake release of biocontrol agents for weeds such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine at appropriate sites and monitor results

5,000

7,500

10,000

12,500

15,000

50,000

2.11 Establish long-term monitoring programs for priority Macadamia populations and disseminate the results

15,000

15,000

30,000

2.12 Update models of the projected impact of climate change on Macadamia ecology, extent of habitat and threatening processes

5,000

5,000

10,000

3.1 Encourage research to address gaps in the current understanding of Macadamia species ecology and develop research priorities for conservation

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

12,500

3.2 Increase knowledge of the structure of genetic diversity in wild populations to assist prioritisation of populations for conservation

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

50,000

3.3 Improve understanding of the consequence of pollination of Macadamia species from domestic germplasm and impacts on long-term conservation

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

50,000

3.4 Facilitate the use of traditional ecological knowledge in the recovery of Macadamia species

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

10,000

50,000

3.5 Research outcomes are promoted and made easily accessible to land managers, land use planners and the wider community

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

3.6 New ecological information is incorporated into information products and materials

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

2,500

12,500

4.1 Develop community education tools that build understanding of the conservation management requirements of Macadamia species

6,000

6,000

6,000

6,000

6,000

30,000

4.2 Continue to develop opportunities for promotion of Macadamia species conservation status

12,000

12,000

12,000

12,000

12,000

60,000

4.3 Liaise with state government agencies, local governments, and regional NRM organisations in order to incorporate Macadamia conservation into their biodiversity conservation and natural resource management strategies

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,000

25,000

5.1 Maintain the role of the Macadamia Conservation Committee as the coordinating body for the Recovery Plan

16,000

16,000

16,000

16,000

16,000

80,000

5.2 Monitor and evaluate the outcomes of the Recovery Plan using an adaptive management framework

10,000

10,000

20,000

Year/Grand Totals

446,500

479,000

451,500

469,000

471,500

2,317,500

 

The Macadamia Conservation Committee will endeavour to monitor the progress and delivery of the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species throughout the life of the Recovery Plan. The MCC will review the Recovery Plan biennially to include new knowledge – whether from research generated as a result of the plan or derived from work undertaken within specific actions – and revise priorities if required.

Resources permitting, the Recovery Plan will be evaluated by members of the MCC at the end of the five-year period in 2028. Implementation of all management actions will be assessed against the designated performance criteria in Section 5.

The authors wish to acknowledge contributors to the previous Recovery Plan (the Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan, SMSRP), and contributions made by the current Recovery Team (Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership), members of the MCC and MCRN, HAL, AMS, local government officers, botanists, landholders and professional staff, to this revision.

Contributors to this Recovery Plan:

Contributors to previous Recovery Plan (SMSRP):

The authors are especially grateful for the guidance and support provided by Ian McConachie AM.

Term

Definition

AG

Australian Government

AMS

Australian Macadamia Society

ASL

Above Sea Level

BCT

Biodiversity Conservation Trust

BRAIN

Brisbane Rainforest Action and Information Network

BMRG

Burnett-Mary Regional Group

CA

Conservation Area

E

Endangered

DAF

Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries

DES

Queensland Department of Environment and Science

DPIE

New South Wales Department of Planning, Infrastructure and Environment

DTMR

Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads

EPBC Act

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)

FR

Forest Reserve

HAL

Horticulture Australia Limited

LA

Lease Area

MCC

Macadamia Conservation Committee

MCRC

Macadamia Conservation Research Committee

MCT

Macadamia Conservation Trust

MGA

Map Grid of Australia

NHT

Natural Heritage Trust

NP

National Park

NR

Nature Refuge

NRM

Natural Resource Management

NSW

New South Wales

QAAFI

Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation

QTfN

Queensland Trust for Nature

RAF

Radioactive Amplified DNA Fingerprinting

RE

Regional Ecosystem

REDD

Regional Ecosystem Description Database

SEQFBC

South East Queensland Fire and Biodiversity Consortium

SF

State forest

TAP

Threat Abatement Plan

SEQTOLSMA

South East Queensland Traditional Owner Land and Sea Management Alliance

SMSRP

Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan

USC

University of the Sunshine Coast

V

Vulnerable

VCA

Voluntary Conservation Agreement

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The Recovery Team consists of members of the Macadamia Conservation Committee and the Macadamia Conservation Research Committee.

These committees were established by the Macadamia Conservation Trust (MCT) in 2018. Members are appointed by invitation and have a term of three years; the full Terms of Reference for each Committee is available from the MCT.

In 2018, appointed members of each Committee were as shown in Table 13 and

Table 14.

Table 13. Macadamia Conservation Committee

Name

Organisation

Denise Bond

Macadamia Conservation Trust (Executive Officer)

Jolyon Burnett

Australian Macadamia Society (CEO)

Andrew Burnside

Community member

Ken Dorey

Community member

Graeme Fleming

Australian Macadamia Society (Board Member)

Liz Gould

Healthy Land and Water

Dick Harding

Save our Waterways Now (SOWN)

Brice Kaddatz

Community member

Ian McConachie AM

Community member

Paul O’Hare (Chair)

Community member

Trevor Steinhardt

Australian Macadamia Society (Board Member)

 

Table 14. Macadamia Conservation Research Committee

Name

Organisation

Andrew Burnside

Macadamia Conservation Committee

Dr Catherine Nock

Southern Cross University

Dr Craig Hardner

University of Queensland

Ian McConachie AM (Chair)

Macadamia Conservation Committee

Dr Katie O’Connor

University of Queensland

Dr Chris Searle

Industry consultant

Associate Professor Alison Shapcott

University of the Sunshine Coast

Associate Professor Bruce Topp

University of Queensland

Terms used to describe the probability of an event occurring are:

Terms used to describe the severity of the expected impacts (level of significance) are shown in Table 15. These terms are used in the risk evaluation matrix for potential impacts shown in Figure 2.

Table 15. Levels of impact and their ecological consequences

Level

Ecological consequence

Negligible

Insignificant impacts to populations. Unlikely to be measurable against background variability. Interactions may be occurring, but it is unlikely that there would be any change outside of natural variation.

Low

Possibly detectable but little impact on population size and none on dynamics.

Moderate

Level of interaction/impact at maximum acceptable level. Long-term recruitment/dynamics not adversely affected.

High

Level of impact above maximum acceptable level. Would affect recruitment levels of the species or their capacity to increase in numbers.

Very High

Likely to cause local extinctions if continued.

Catastrophic

Local extinctions are imminent/immediate.

 

Figure 2. Risk evaluation matrix – potential impacts

Image of the risk evaluation matrix used to classify potential impacts. Probability of events (left axis) ranges from remote to likely and significance of consequences (right axis) ranges from negligible to catastrophic. Within the matrix impacts are ranked from 1 to 4. This risk matrix is used to inform the risk variable seen in Table 9.